„  *^ 


ft. 


COOPERAGE 


' '  Science  ought  to  teach  us  to  see  the  invisible 
as  well  as  the  visible  in  nature ;  to  picture  in  our 
mind's  eye  those  operations  that  entirely  elude 
the  eye  of  the  body ;  to  look  at  the  very  atoms  of 
matter  in  motion,  and  at  rest,  and  to  follow  them 
forth  into  the  world  of  senses/' 

TYNDALL. 


COOPERAGE 


A  TREATISE  ON  MODERN  SHOP 
PRACTICE  AND  METHODS;  FROM  THE 
TREE  TO  THE  FINISHED  ARTICLE 

PROFUSELY     ILLUSTRATED 


COMPILED  AND  WRITTEN 

BY 

J.   B.   WAGNER 

Price,  $5.00 


PUBLISHED  BY 

J.  B.  WAGNER,  YONKERS,  N.  Y. 
1910 


COPYBIGHT,    1910 

BY  J.  B.  WAGNER 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


Dedication 

' '  THIS  volume  is  respectfully  dedicated  to 
those  inventors,  designers  and  builders  of  coo- 
perage machinery  and  appliances,  whose  skill 
and  devoted  efforts  along  these  lines  have  con- 
tributed so  largely  toward  the  perfection  of  our 
present  methods  of  manufacture,  placing  our 
factories  in  the  front  rank  with  the  leading  in- 
dustries of  the  world." 

THE  AUTHOR. 


PREFACE 

THE  preparation  of  this  work  has  occupied  the  writer's 
spare  moments  for  a  number  of  years.  Originally  the 
matter  was  not  intended  for  publication,  but  the  manu- 
script has  grown  so  large  and  complete,  which  considera- 
tion, combined  with  many  repeated  requests,  has  induced 
the  writer  to  publish  the  matter  in  book  form. 

While  all  other  trades  and  professions  have  their  lit- 
erature more  or  less  complete,  the  cooperage  industry 
has  never  before  been  represented  by  any  technical  work, 
and  appears  to  have  been  neglected  along  these  lines. 
Therefore,  we  trust  that  the  trade  will  appreciate  our 
endeavors  in  bringing  before  them  this  work,  as  well  as 
the  difficulties  encountered  in  compiling  it,  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  first  of  its  kind  in  existence,  and  we  hope 
that  it  will  eventually  prove  to  them  a  valuable  aid. 

The  man  that  studies  and  applies  himself  attentively 
to  any  subject,  seeks  to  advise  his  fellow-workman  or 
give  an  exposition  of  the  general  principles  of  any  science, 
industry  or  trade,  or  of  improving  conditions  generally, 
often  meets  at  times  with  severe  criticism.  As  there 
seems  to  be  present  in  the  minds  of  most  persons  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  doubt  and  uncertainty  as  to  the  wisdom 
and  ability  of  any  person  to  advise  them  in  these  matters, 
even  if  the  writer  has  been  for  a  long  time  a  student  on 
the  particular  subject  on  which  he  writes. 

Therefore,  in  presenting  this  volume,  which  is  launched, 
not  as  a  literary  effort  nor  as  a  scientific  essay,  but 
rather  as  a  practical  discussion  of  principles  and  methods, 
the  writer  is  aware  that  his  efforts  may  meet  with  such 
criticism;  but  we  do  not  desire  to  leave  the  impression 
that  it  is  our  own  individual  work,  or  that  it  is  an  expres- 


viii  PEEFACE 

sion  of  opinion  of  a  single  individual,  but  rather  a  group- 
ing together  of  ideas  offered  by  a  considerable  number  of 
persons  connected  with  the  trade  in  its  different 
branches,  together  with  data  continually  collected  during 
the  author's  extended  career,  both  in  this  country  and  in 
Europe,  of  over  a  quarter  of  a  century. 

In  regard  to  originality,  we  lay  claim  to  very  little,  for, 
although  the  facts  contained  in  a  large  number  of  the 
items  have  been  gained  through  years  of  practical  ex- 
perience, we  are  indebted  to  others  for  a  greater  portion, 
and  merely  lay  claim  to  have,  as  a  great  poet  has  said, 
"gathered  the  fruits  of  other  men's  labors  and  bound 
them  with  our  own  string. "  And  we  trust  our  efforts 
will  present  some  information  that  may  be  applied  with 
advantage,  or  serve  at  least  as  a  matter  of  consideration 
or  investigation. 

Although  much  of  the  information  contained  in  this 
volume  exists  in  the  experience  of  practical  men  of  the 
trade  and  in  other  technical  and  mechanical  works,  it  has 
never  before  been  published  in  systematic  and  accessible 
form  and  with  special  application  to  the  cooperage  in- 
dustry. In  every  case  our  aim  has  been  to  give  the  facts, 
and  wherever  a  machine  or  appliance  has  been  illustrated 
or  commented  upon,  or  the  name  of  the  maker  has  been 
mentioned,  it  is  not  with  the  intention  either  of  recom- 
mending or  disparaging  his  or  their  work,  but  are  made 
use  of  merely  to  illustrate  the  text. 

The  writer  has  endeavored  to  discuss  the  principles 
and  methods  in  as  plain  common-sense  words  as  the  Eng- 
lish language  will  permit,  and  the  preparation  of  the  fol- 
lowing pages  has  been  a  work  of  pleasure  to  the  author. 
If  they  prove  beneficial  and  of  service  to  his  fellow-work- 
men, he  will  have  been  amply  repaid. 

THE  AUTHOK. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

THE  writer  desires  to  acknowledge  the  kind  assistance 
rendered  him  by  such  able  writers  as  Mr.  E.  A.  Sterling, 
Filibert  Eoth,  and  others,  of  the  Forest  Service,  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  for  the  use  he  has  made  of  extracts 
from  some  of  their  admirable  articles  written  for  this 
department,  and  the  Hon.  Gifford  Pinchot,  forester,  for 
his  very  kind  permission  in  the  use  of  same. 

To  our  trade  journals,  notably,  The  National  Coopers' 
Journal, — The  Barrel  and  Box — Packages,  and  to  nu- 
merous managers  and  superintendents  of  well-known 
mills  and  factories,  and  to  individual  fellow-workmen 
throughout  the  country. 

Much  valuable  information  was  furnished  and  many  of 
the  engravings  which  were  used  to  illustrate  the  machin- 
ery were  kindly  loaned  to  the  writer  by  the  following 
named  firms: 

BALDWIN,  TUTHILL  &  BOLTON Grand  Eapids,  Mich. 

EOCHESTEE  BARBEL  MACHINE  WORKS Eochester,  N.  Y. 

WM.  E.  HILL  &  Co Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

MERRITT  MANUFACTURING  Co Lockport,  N.  Y. 

E.  &  B.  HOLMES  MACHINERY  Co Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  AGRICULTURE Washington,  D.  C. 

DEFIANCE  MACHINE  WORKS Defiance,  Ohio 

THE  NOBLE  MACHINE  WORKS Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

COVEL  MANUFACTURING  Co Benton  Harbor,  Mich. 

JOHN  S.  ORAM Cleveland,  Ohio 

THE  PETER  GERLACH  Co Cleveland,  Ohio 

THE  GEO.  CHALONER'S  SONS  Co Oshkosh,  Wis. 

To  these  the  author  takes  pleasure  in  herein  acknowl- 
edging his  indebtedness,  with  many  thanks,  for  a  large 
number  of  facts  and  for  other  assistance  rendered  him. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


CONTENTS 

SECTION  I 

TIMBER 

Characteristics  and  Properties  of  Same — General  Remarks — Classes  of 
Trees — Wood  of  Coniferous  Trees — Bark  and  Pith — Sap  and  Heart- 
wood — The  Annual  or  Yearly  Ring — Spring  and  Summer -wood — 
Anatomical  Structure — List  of  the  More  Important  Coniferous 
\V0ocls — Wood  of  Broad-leaved  Trees — Minute  Structure — List  of 
the  More  Important  Broad-leaved  Trees — Range  of  Red  Gum — 
Form  of  the  Red  Gum — Tolerance  of  the  Red  Gum — Its  Demands 
upon  Soil  and  Moisture — Reproduction  of  Red  Gum — Second- 
growth  Red  Gum — Tupelo  Gum — Uses  of  Tupelo  Gum — Range  of 
Tupelo  Gum — Different  Grains  of  Wood — Color  and  Odor — Weight; 
of  Wood— Weight  of  Kiln-dried  Wood  of  Different  Species 1-68 

SECTION  II 

ENEMIES  OF  WOOD 

General  Remarks — Ambrosia  or  Timber  Beetles — Round-headed  Borers 
— Flat-headed  Borers — Timber  Worms — Powder  Post  Borers — Con- 
ditions Favorable  for  Insect  Injury — Crude  Products — Round  Tim- 
ber With  Bark  On — How  to  Prevent  Injury — Saplings — Stave, 
Heading  and  Shingle  Bolts — Unseasoned  Products  in  the  Rough — 
Seasoned  Products  in  the  Rough — Dry  Cooperage  Stock  and 
Wooden  Truss-hoops — Staves  and  Heads  of  Barrels  Containing 
Alcoholic  Liquids 69-86 

SECTION  III 

FOREST  FIRES 

General  Remarks — Fires  the  Greatest  Enemy  of  Forests — Some  Esti- 
mates of  Losses  from  Forest  Fires — Losses  from  Fires  Which  Are 
Not  Usually '  Considered — Conditions  Which  Affect  Fire  Losses — 
Erroneous  Ideas  Concerning  Effects  of  Fires — Views  of  Lumbermen 
Concerning  Forest  Fires — Changed  Conditions — Fire  Protection  on 
Private  Lands — New  Departures  in  Dealing  with  the  Fire  Prob- 
lem— Burning  Slash  or  Refuse — Plan  for  Protecting  Mature  Tim- 
ber— The  Question  of  Second  Growth — Forest  Fires — Their  Cause 
and  Prevention — Methods  of  Fighting  Same 87-103 


xii  ,  CONTENTS 

SECTION  IV 

SAWS 

General  Saw  Instructions — Saw-fitting  Not  a  Mysterious  Process — 
.  Filing-room  Equipment — For  Sharpening  and  Gumming  Circu- 
lars— For  Swaging — For  Side-dressing — For  Hammering  and  Ad- 
justing— For  Setting — For  Swaging  Cylinder  Stave  Saws — For 
Gumming  and  Sharpening  Cylinder  Stave  Saws — For  Knife 
Sharpening — For  General  Use — Some  Causes  of  Poor  Results  in 
Saws — The  Proper  Care  of  Saws — Saws  Out  of  Round — Sharpen- 
ing and  Gumming — Fitting  and  Swaging — Lead  of  Saws — Num- 
ber and  Style  of  Tooth — Circular  Ripsaws — The  Standard  Num- 
ber of  Teeth  in  Circular  Ripsaws — Cut-off  or  Cross-cut  Saws — 
The  Standard  Number  of  Teeth  in  Cross-cut  Saws — Collars  for 
Saws — Speed  of  Saws — Hammering  and  Tensioning 104-139 

SECTION  V 

KNIVES 

Practical  Discussion — Different  Ideas  on  Temper — Speed  of  Knives — 
Temper  of  Knives — Tempering  Solutions — To  Temper  Knives — Ta- 
ble of  Tempers  to  Which  Tools  Should  be  Drawn — To  Temper  Old 
Files— The  Emery  Wheel— Its  Uses— Speed  of  Emery  Wheels.  .  .140-150 

SECTION  VI 

PRODUCTION  OF  SLACK  COOPERAGE  STOCK 

General  Remarks — Production  of  Slack  Stock — Woods  Chiefly  Used  for 
Slack  Cooperage — Total  Stock  Produced  for  Past  Three  Years- 
Value  and  Average  Value  of  Stock  Produced — Slack  Barrel  Stave 
Production — Quantity  of  Staves  Manufactured  by  Kinds  of  Wood — 
Slack  Barrel  Heading  Production — Quantity  of  Heads  Manufac- 
tured by  Kinds  of  Wood — Slack  Barrel  Hoop  Production — Quan- 
tity of  Hoops  Manufactured  by  Kinds  of  Wood — Review  of  Forest 
Report 151-171 

SECTION  VII 

HARVESTING  RAW  MATERIAL 

Harvesting  Raw  Material — Time  of  Felling — Woods  Management — The 
Difficulties  of  Transporting  Gum — Location  of  Plant — Site  and 
Arrangement  of  Mill — The  Unloading  Switch— The  Slack  Stock 
Mill  .  ..172-194 


CONTENTS  xlii 

SECTION  VIII 

SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE 

General  Remarks — The  Waste  Problem — The  Bolting  Room — The  Cut- 
off Saw — The  Drag-saw — The  Drop-feed  Circular  Cut-off  Saw — 
The  Bolting  Saw — Stave  and  Heading  Bolts — Steam-boxes  for 
Stave  Bolts — The  Dutch-oven  or  Bulldog  Furnace — The  Stave  Bolt 
Equalizing  Machine — Cracks  in  Equalizer  Saws — The  Stave-Cut- 
ting Machine — Number  of  Staves  per  cord  or  Rank — The  Cylinder 
Stave  Saw — The  Swing  Cut-off  Saw — Stave  Piling  and  Air-season- 
ing— Stave  Jointing — Stave  Bundling  or  Packing — Inspection — 
Dead  Cull  Staves — Standard  Specifications  and  Grades 195-254 

SECTION  IX 

SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE 

General  Remarks — Bolting  Out — The  Heading  Saw — The  Horizontal 
Hand-feed  Heading  Saw — Seasoning— What  Seasoning  Is — Manner 
of  Evaporation  of  Water — Distribution  of  Water  in  Wood — Rapid- 
ity of  Evaporation — Effects  of  Moisture  on  Wood — Shrinkage  of 
Wood — Difficulties  of  Drying  Wood — Unsolved  Problems  in  Kiln- 
drying — Kiln-drying — Planing — Jointing — Turning  or  Circling — 
Bundling  or  Packing — Standard  Specifications  and  Grades 255-300 

SECTION  X 

SLACK  HOOP  MANUFACTURE 

General  Remarks — The  Patent  Hoop — Different  Methods  of  Manufac- 
ture—The Sawn  Process — The  Cutting  Process — The  Boiling  Vat — 
The  Hoop  Cutter — The  Hoop  Planer — The  Hoop-pointing  and  Lap- 
ping Machine — The  Hoop-coiling  Machine — Piling  on  Yard — Sea- 
soning— Standard  Specifications  and  Grades — Head  Liners.  ..  .301-325 

SECTION  XI 

MODERN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT 

General  Remarks — Shop  Management — Office  Management — Econo- 
mies   326-345 

•  SECTION  XII 

USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION 

Weights  of  Slack  Cooperage  Stock — Capacity  of  Cars — Legal  Fruit 
Barrel  in  New  York  State — Legal  Fruit  Barrel  in  Indiana — Notes 


xiv  CONTENTS 

and  Information  on  Belting — Rules  for  Calculating  Speed  of  Pul- 
leys— Rules  for  Calculating  Power  of  Belting — Horsepower  of 
Leather  Belts— Babbitt  Metal  and  Babbitting— Glue  to  Resist 
Moisture — Receipts  for  Soldering  Fluids — Useful  Rules  and  Infor- 
mation on  Water — Useful  Rules 'and  Information  on  Steam — Duty 
of  Steam  Engines — Weight  and  Comparative  Fuel  Value  of  Wood 
— To  Place  an  Engine  on  the  Dead  Centre — Horsepower  of  an  En- 
gine— Horsepower  Constants — Useful  Numbers  for  Rapid  Calcula- 
tion— Decimal  Equivalents — Table  of  Gauges — Table  of  Alloys — 
Government  or  Treasury  Whitewash — Power  Equivalents — Hy- 
draulic Equivalents — Mensuration — Memorandum 346-416 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  SEC.  PAGE 

1.  Board  of  pine I  12 

2.  Wood  of  spruce I  13 

3.  Group  of  fibres  from  pine  wood I  14 

4.  Block  of  oak I  25 

5.  Board  of  oak I  26 

6.  Cross-section  of  oak  highly  magnified I  26 

7.  Highly  magnified  fibres  of  wood I  28 

8.  Isolated  fibres  and  cells  of  wood I  30 

9.  Cross-section  of  basswood I  31 

10.  Spiral  grain  in  wood I  59 

11.  Alternating  spiral  grain  in  cypress I  59 

12.  Wavy  grain  in  beech I  60 

13.  Section  of  wood  showing  position  of  the  grain  at  base 

of  limb   I  61 

14.  Cross-section  of  a  group  of  wood  fibres I  64 

15.  Isolated  fibres  of  wood I  64 

16.  Orientation  of  wood  samples I  65 

17.  Work  of  ambrosia  beetles  in  tulip  or  yellow  poplar  wood  II  73 

18.  Work  of  ambrosia  beetles  in  oak II  73 

19.  Work  of  round-headed  and  flat-headed  borers  in  pine. . .  II  75 

20.  Work  of  timber  worms  in  oak II  76 

21.  Work  of  powder  post  beetles  in  hickory  poles  II  78 

22.  Work  of  powder  post  beetles  in  hickory  poles  II  78 

23.  Work  of  powder  post  beetles  in  hickory  handles,  etc...  II  79 

24.  Work  of  round-headed  borer  in  white  pine  staves II  84 

25.  View  of  land  burned  over  every  year Ill  89 

26.  Effects  of  a  forest  fire Ill  91 

27.  Damage  done  by  a  fire Ill  94 

28.  Automatic  saw  sharpener IV  110 

29.  Hand  sharpener  and  gummer IV  111 

30.  Adjustable  hand  swage IV  113 

31.  Side-dresser  or  swage  shaper IV  114 

32.  Tools  for  hammering,  etc IV  115 

33.  Circular  saw  set IV  115 

34.  Hand  saw  sets IV  116 

35.  Saw  gauge IV  116 

36.  Cylinder  saw  gauge IV  117 

37.  Bench  vise  or  clamp IV  117 

38.  Cylinder  saw  gummer  or- sharpener. IV  118 


xvi  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  SEC.  PAGE 

39.  Automatic  knife  sharpener  or  grinder IV  119 

39y2.  Knife-balancing  scales IV  119 

40.  Straight  bevel  grinding  of  knife IV  120 

41.  Concave  bevel  grinding  of  knife IV  120 

42.  Concave  grinding  of  stave  cutter  knife IV  121 

43.  Back  grinding  of  stave  cutter  knife IV  121 

44.  Forest  regions  of  the  United  States VII  177 

45.  A  typical  hardwood  forest VII  179 

46.  Hauling  logs VII  180 

47.  Waste  in  woods  operations VII  181 

48.  Good  and  bad  tree  cutting VII  182 

49.  A  large  hemlock VII  183 

50.  A  large  red  gum VII  184 

51.  A  large  cottonwood VII  185 

52.  Second-growth  red  gum,  etc t  VII  186 

53.  A  cypress  slough  in  the  dry  season VII  187 

54.  A  tupelo  gum  slough VII  188 

55.  Peeled  red  gum  logs  seasoning  in  the  woods VII  189 

56.  Endless  chain  log  haul-up VIII  202 

57.  Steam  kicker  or  log  unloader VIII  203 

58.  Direct-acting  steam  drag  saw VIII  204 

59.  Drop  feed  circular  cut-off  saw.  .• VIII  205 

60.  Drop-feed  circular  cut-off  saw  in  action,  right-hand  view  VIII  206 

61.  Drop-feed  circular  cut-off  saw  in  action,  left-hand  view.  VIII  207 

62.  Overhead  style  steam  dog VIII  208 

63.  Floor-level  style  steam  dog VIII  210 

64.  Plan  of  horizontal  bolting  saw VIII  214 

65.  A  log  before  being  sawn  into  bolts VIII  216 

66.  A  bolt  before  being  quartered VIII  216 

67.  A  bolt,  showing  method  of  quartering VIII  216 

68.  A  properly  quartered  stave  bolt VIII  217 

69.  Stave  bolt  or  flitch. VIII  217 

70.  Stave  bolt,  showing  method  of  cutting VIII  217 

71.  Heading  bolt VIII  218 

72.  Heading  bolt,  showing  method  of  sawing VIII  218 

73.  Dutch  oven  or  bulldog  furnace VIII  227 

74.  Stave  bolt  equalizer VIII  228 

75.  Stave  cutter   VIII  232 

76.  Cylinder  stave  saw VIII  236 

77.  Swing  cut-off  saw VIII  239 

78.  Stave  piling  sheds  and  log  pond VIII  240 

79.  Slack  stave  foot-power  jointer VIII  243 

80.  Slack  stave  "power"  jointer.  . . . . . VIII  244 

81.  Stave  jointer  knife  VIII  247 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIG.  SEC.  PAGE 

•  82.  Stave  packer  or  bundling  machine VIII  249 

83.  Pendulous   swing  heading  saw IX  259 

84.  Horizontal  heading  saw IX  261 

84y2.  Horizontal  heading  saw IX  262 

85.  Heading  planer IX  287 

86.  Heading  jointer IX  288 

87.  Heading  turner . .  IX  293 

88.  Method  of  determining  circle  of  heading  saws IX  294 

89.  Proper  bevel  for  slack  heading IX  296 

90.  Heading  press IX  297 

91.  Results  of  poor  bundling IX  298 

92.  End  section  of  "patent"  hoop X  304 

93.  Short-log  sawmill X  308 

94.  Self-feed  gang  ripsaw X  308 

95.  Self-feed  gang  ripsaw X  309 

96.  The  "Trautman"  sawn-hoop  machine X  310 

97.  The  "Kettenring"  sawn-hoop  machine X  311 

98.  Hoop  bar  chuck-pointing  machine X  311 

99.  Hand-feed  hoop-lapping  machine X  312 

100.  The  hoop  cutter X  316 

101.  The  hoop  cutter X  317 

102.  The  automatic  triple  hoop  planer X  318 

103.  The  automatic  hoop-pointing  and  lapping  machine X  319 

104.  ''The  Ward"  hoop-coiling  machine X  320 

105.  "The  Defiance"   hoop-coiling  machine X  321 

106.  The  head  liner  machine..  X  325 


SECTION   I 


TIMBER 


TIMBER 


CHARACTERISTICS  AND  PROPERTIES 

GENERAL    REMARKS 

/ 

ALTHOUGH  wood  has  been  in  use  so  long  and  so  uni- 
versally, there  still  exists  a  remarkable  lack  of  knowl- 
edge regarding  its  nature,  not  only  among  ordinary 
workmen,  but  among  those  who  might  be  expected  to 
know  its  properties.  As  a  consequence  the  practice  is 
often  faulty  and  wasteful  in  the  manner  of  its  use.  Ex- 
perience has  been  almost  the  only  teacher,  and  notions — 
sometimes  right,  sometimes  wrong — rather  than  well- 
substantiated  facts,  lead  the  workman.  One  reason  for 
this  imperfect  knowledge  lies  in  the  fact  that  wood  is 
not  a  homogeneous  material,  but  a  complicated  struc- 
ture, and  so  variable  that  one  piece  will  behave  very  dif- 
ferently from  another,  although  cut  from  the  same  tree. 
Not  only  does  the  wood  of  one  species  differ  from  that  of 
another,  but  the  butt  cut  differs  from  that  of  the  top  log, 
the  heartwood  from  the  sapwood,  the  wood  of  the  quickly 
grown  sapling  of  the  abandoned  field,  from  that  of  the 
slowly  grown  old  monarch  of  the  forest.  Even  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  tree  was  sawn  and  the  condition  in 
which  the  wood  was  cut  and  kept  influence  its  behavior 
and  quality.  It  is,  therefore,  extremely  difficult  to  study 
the  material  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  general 
laws.  The  experienced  woodsman  will  look  for  straight- 
grained,  long-fibred  woods,  with  the  absence  of  disturb- 
ing resinous  and  coloring  matter,  knots,  etc.,  and  will 
quickly  distinguish  the  more  porous  red  or  black  oaks 
from  the  less  porous  white  species,  Quercus-alba.  That 


4  COOPERAGE 

the  inspection  should  have  regard  to  defects  and  un- 
healthy conditions  (often  indicated  by  color)  goes  with- 
out saying,  and  such  inspection  is  usually  practised. 
That  knots,  even  the  smallest,  are  defects,  which  for 
some  uses  condemn  the  material  altogether,  needs  hardly 
to  be  mentioned.  But  that  season-checks,  even  those 
that  have  closed  by  subsequent  shrinkage,  remain  ele- 
ments of  weakness  is  not  so  readily  appreciated,  yet 
there  cannot  be  any  doubt  of  this,  since  this,  the  inti- 
mate connections  of  the  wood  fibres  when  once  inter- 
rupted are  never  re-established.  The  careful  woods- 
foreman  and  stock  manufacturer,  therefore,  is  concerned 
as  to  the  manner  in  which  his  timber  is  treated  after  the 
felling,  for,  according  to  the  more  or  less  careful  season- 
ing of  it,  the  season-checks — not  altogether  avoidable — 
are  more  or  less  abundant.  This  is  practically  recog- 
nized by  sawing  the  stave  and  heading  bolt  at  least  two 
inches  longer  than  is  actually  required,  in  order  to  elim- 
inate these  season-checks,  should  there  be  any,  when  the 
bolt  is  sawn  or  cut  into  staves  and  heading,  and  by  split- 
ting or  quartering  the  cooperage  stock,  more  or  less,  in 
the  woods  and  seasoning  it  partly  shaped.  There  is  no 
country  where  wood  is  more  lavishly  used  and  crimi- 
nally neglected  than  in  the  United  States,  and  none  in 
which  nature  has  more  bountifully  provided  for  all  rea- 
sonable requirements.  In  the  absence  of  proper  efforts 
to  secure  reproduction,  the  most  valuable  kinds  are  rap- 
idly being  decimated,  and  the  necessity  of  a  more  ra- 
tional and  careful  use  of  what  remains  is  clearly  appar- 
ent. By  greater  care  in  selection,  however,  not  only  can 
the  duration  of  the  supply  be  extended,  but  more  satis- 
factory results  will  accrue  from  its  practice.  The  struc- 
ture of  wood  affords  the  only  reliable  means  of  distin- 
guishing the  different  kinds.  Color,  weight,  smell  and 
other  appearances,  which  are  often  direct  or  indirect  re- 


TIMBER  5 

suits  of  structure,  may  be  helpful  in  this  distinction,  but 
cannot  be  relied  upon  entirely.  In  addition,  structure 
underlies  nearly  all  the  technical  properties  of  this  im- 
portant product,  and  furnishes  an  explanation  why  one 
piece  differs  as  to  these  properties  from  another.  Struc- 
ture explains  why  oak  is  heavier,  stronger  and  tougher 
than  pine ;  why  it  is  harder  to  saw  and  plane,  and  why  it 
is  so  much  more  difficult  to  season  without  injury.  From 
its  less  porous  structure  alone  it  is  evident  that  a  piece 
of  young  and  thrifty  oak  is  stronger  than  the  porous  wood 
of  an  old  or  stunted  tree,  or  that  a  Georgia  or  long-leafed 
pine  excels  white  pine  in  weight  and  strength.  Keep- 
ing especially  in  mind  the  arrangement  and  direction  of 
the  fibres  of  wood,  it  is  clear  at  once  why  "  knots  and 
cross-grain  "  interfere  with  the  strength  of  timber.  It  is 
due  to  the  structural  peculiarities  that  "  honeycombing " 
occurs  in  rapid  seasoning,  that ' '  checks  or  cracks ' '  extend 
radially  and  follow  pith  rays,  that  tangent  or  bastard 
stock  shrinks  and  warps  more  than  that  which  is  quarter- 
sawn.  These  same  peculiarities  enable  oak  to  take  a  bet- 
ter finish  than  basswood  or  coarse-grained  pine. 

CLASSES  OF  TKEES 

The  timber  of  the  United  States  is  furnished  by  three 
well-defined  classes  of  trees:  the  needle-leaved,  naked- 
seeded  conifers,  such  as  pine,  cedar,  etc.,  the  broad-leaved 
trees,  such  as  oak,  poplar,  etc.,  and  to  an  inferior  extent 
by  the  (one-seed  leaf)  palms,  yuccas,  and  their  allies, 
which  last  are  confined  to  the  most  southern  parts  of  the 
country.  Broad-leaved  trees  are  also  known  as  decidu- 
ous trees,  although,  especially  in  warm  countries,  many 
of  them  are  evergreen,  while  the  conifers  are  commonly 
termed  "  evergreens. "  although  the  larch,  bald  cypress 
and  others  shed  their  leaves  every  fall,  and  even  the 
names  " broad-leaved "  and  "coniferous,"  though  per- 


6  COOPERAGE 

haps  the  most  satisfactory,  are  not  at  all  exact,  for  the 
conifer  "ginkgo"  has  broad  leaves  and  bears  no  cones. 
Among  the  woodsmen,  the  woods  of  broad-leaved  trees 
are  known  as  "hardwoods,"  though  poplar  is  as  soft  as 
pine,  and  the  " coniferous  woods"  are  "softwoods,"  not- 
withstanding that  yew  ranks  high  in  hardness  even  when 
compared  to  "hardwoods."  Both  in  the  number  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  trees  or  species  and  still  more  in  the  im- 
portance of  their  product  the  conifers  and  broad-leaved 
trees  far  excel  the  palms  and  their  relatives.  In  the 
manner  of  growth  both  conifers  and  broad-leaved  trees 
behave  alike,  adding  each  year  a  new  layer  of  wood,  which 
covers  the  old  woo4  in  all  parts  of  the  stem  and  limbs. 
Thus  the  trunk  continues  to  grow  in  thickness  through- 
out the  life  of  the  tree  by  additions  (annual  rings),  which 
in  temperate  climates  are,  barring  accidents,  accurate 
records  of  the  tree.  With  the  palms  and  their  relatives 
the  stem  remains  generally  of  the  same  diameter,  the 
tree  of  a  hundred  years  old  being  as  thick  as  it  was  at 
ten  years,  the  growth  of  these  being  only  at  the  top.  Even 
where  a  peripheral  increase  takes  place,  as  in  the  yuccas, 
the  wood  is  not  laid  on  in  well-defined  layers;  the  struc- 
ture remains  irregular  throughout.  Though  alike  in 
their  manner  of  growth,  and  therefore  similar  in  their 
general  make-up,  conifers  and  broad-leaved  trees  differ 
markedly  in  the  details  of  their  structure  and  the  char- 
acter of  their  wood.  The  wood  of  all  conifers  is  very 
simple  in  its  structure,  the  fibres  composing  the  main 
part  of  the  wood  being  all  alike  and  their  arrangement 
regular.  The  wood  of  broad-leaved  trees  is  complex  in 
structure;  it  is  made  up  of  different  kinds  of  cells  and 
fibres  and  lacks  the  regularity  of  arrangement  so  notice- 
able in  the  conifers.  This  difference  is  so  great  that  in  a 
study  of  wood  structure  it  is  best  to  consider  the  two 
kinds  separately.  In  this  country  the  great  variety  of 


TIMBER  7 

woods,  and  of  useful  woods  at  that,  often  makes  the  mere 
distinction  of  the  kind  or  species  of  tree  most  difficult. 
Thus  there  are  at  least  eight  pines  of  the  thirty-five 
native  ones  in  the  market,  some  of  which  so  closely  re- 
semble each  other  in  their  minute  structure  that  they  can 
hardly  be  told  apart,  and  yet  they  differ  in  quality  and 
are  often  mixed  or  confounded  in  the  trade.  Of  the 
thirty-six  oaks,  of  which  probably  not  less  than  six  or 
eight  are  marketed,  we  can  readily  recognize  by  means 
of  their  minute  anatomy  at  least  two  tribes — the  white 
and  black  oaks.  The  same  is  true  as  to  the  eleven  kinds 
of  hickory,  the  six  kinds  of  ash,  etc.,  etc.  The  list  of 
names  of  all  trees  indigenous  to  the  United  States,  as 
enumerated  by  the  Forest  Service,  is  495  in  number,  the 
designation  of  "tree"  being  applied  to  all  woody  plants 
which  produce  naturally  in  their  native  habitat  one 
main,  erect  stem,  bearing  a  definite  crown,  no  matter 
what  size  they  attain. 

WOOD   OP   CONIFEKOUS   TKEES 

Examining  a  smooth  cross-section  or  end  face  of  a 
well-grown  log  of  Georgia  pine,  we  distinguish  an  envel- 
ope of  reddish,  scaly  bark,  a  small  whitish  pith  at  the 
centre,  and  between  these  the  wood  in  a  great  number 
of  concentric  rings. 

BAKK  AND  PITH 

The  bark  of  a  pine  stem  is  thickest  and  roughest  near 
the  base,  decreases  rapidly  in  thickness  from  one  and 
one-half  inches  at  the  stump  to  one-tenth  inch  near  the 
top  of  the  tree,  and  forms  in  general  about  ten  to  fifteen 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  trunk.  The  pith  is  quite  thick, 
usually  one-eighth  to  one-fifth  inch  in  southern  species, 
though  much  less  so  in  white  pine,  and  is  very  thin,  one- 
fifteenth  to  one-twenty-fifth  inch  in  cypress,  cedar  and 
larch.  In  woods  with  a  thick  pith,  this  latter  is  finest  at 


8  COOPERAGE 

the  stump,  grows  rapidly  thicker  upward,  and  becoming 
thinner  again  in  the  crown  and  limbs,  the  first  one  to 
five  rings  adjoining  it  behaving  similarly. 

SAP  AND  HEABTWOOD 

A  zone  of  wood  next  to  the  bark,  one  to  three  inches 
wide  and  containing  thirty  to  fifty  or  more  annual  or 
concentric  rings,  is  of  a  lighter  color.  This  is  the  sap- 
wood,  the  inner  darker  part  of  the  log  being  the  heart- 
wood.  In  the  former  many  cells  are  active  and  store  up 
starch  and  otherwise  assist  in  the  life  processes  of  the 
tree,  although  only  the  last  or  outer  layer  of  cells  forms 
the  growing  part,  and  the  true  life  of  the  tree.  In  the 
heartwood  all  the  cells  are  lifeless  cases,  and  serve  only 
the  mechanical  function  of  keeping  the  tree  from  break- 
ing under  its  own  great  weight  or  from  being  laid  low  by 
the  winds.  The  darker  color  of  the  heartwood  is  due 
to  infiltration  of  chemical  substances  into  the  cell  walls, 
but  the  cavities  of  the  cells  in  pine  are  not  filled  up,  as  is 
sometimes  believed,  nor  do  their  walls  grow  thicker,  nor 
are  their  walls  any  more  liquefied  than  in  the  sapwood. 
Sapwood  varies  in  width  and  in  the  number  of  rings 
which  it  contains  even  in  different  parts  of  the  same 
tree.  The  same  year's  growth  which  is  sapwood  in  one 
part  of  a  disk  may  be  heartwood  in  another.  Sapwood 
is  widest  in  the  main  part  of  the  stem  and  varies  often 
within  considerable  limits  and  without  apparent  regular- 
ity. Generally  it  becomes  narrower  toward  the  top  and 
in  the  limbs,  its  width  varying  with  the  diameter,  and 
being  least  in  a  given  disk  on  the  side  which  has  the 
shortest  radius.  Sapwood  of  old  and  stunted  pines  is 
composed  of  more  rings  than  that  of  young  and  thrifty 
specimens.  Thus  in  a  pine  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
old  a  layer  of  wood  or  annual  ring  does  not  change 
from  sapwood  to  heartwood  until  seventy  or  eighty  years 


TIMBER  9 

after  it  is  formed,  while  in  a  tree  one  hundred  years  old 
or  less  it  remains  sapwood  only  from  thirty  to  sixty 
years.  The  width  of  the  sapwood  varies  considerably 
for  different  kinds  of  pine.  It  is  small  for  long-leaf 
and  white  pine  and  great  for  loblolly  and  Norway  pines. 
Occupying  the  peripheral  part  of  the  trunk,  the  propor- 
tion which  it  forms  of  the  entire  mass  of  the  stem  is 
always  great.  Thus  even  in  old  trees  of  long-leaf  pine 
the  sapwood  forms  about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  mer- 
chantable log,  while  in  the  loblolly  and  in  all  young 
trees  the  bulk  of  the  wood  is  sapwood. 

THE  ANNUAL  OE  YEARLY  KING 

The  concentric  annual  or  yearly  rings  which  appear 
on  the  end  face  of  a  log  are  cross-sections  of  so  many 
thin  layers  of  wood.  Each  such  layer  forms  an  envelope 
around  its  inner  neighbor,  and  is  in  turn  covered  by  the 
adjoining  layer  without,  so  that  the  whole  stem  is  built 
up  of  a  series  of  thin,  hollow  cylinders,  or  rather  cones. 
A  new  layer  of  wood  is  formed  each  season,  covering  the 
entire  stem,  as  well  as  all  the  living  branches.  The 
thickness  of  this  layer  or  the  width  of  the  yearly  ring 
varies  greatly  in  different  trees,  and  also  in  different 
parts  of  the  same  tree.  In  a  normally  grown  thrifty 
pine  log  the  rings  are  widest  near  the  pith,  growing 
more  and  more  narrower  toward  the  bark.  Thus  the 
central  twenty  rings  in  a  disk  of  an  old  long-leaf  pine 
may  each  be  one-eighth  to  one-sixth  inch  wide,  while  the 
twenty  rings  next  to  the  bark  may  average  only  one- 
thirtieth  inch.  In  our  forest  trees,  rings  of  one-half 
inch  in  width  occur  only  near  the  centre  in  disks  of  very 
thrifty  trees,  of  both  conifers  and  hardwoods.  One- 
twelfth  inch  represents  good  thrifty  growth,  and  the  min- 
imum width  of  %oo  inch  is  often  seen  in  stunted  spruce 


10  COOPEEAGE 

and  pine.  The  average  width  of  rings  in  well-grown 
old  white  pine  will  vary  from  one-twelfth  to  one-eight- 
eenth inch,  while  in  the  slower  growing  long-leaf  pine 
it  may  be  one-twenty-fifth  to  one-thirtieth  of  an  inch. 
The  same  layer  of  wood  is  widest  near  the  stump  in  very 
thrifty  young  trees,  especially  if  grown  in  the  open  park ; 
but  in  old  forest  trees  the  same  year's  growth  is  wider 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  tree,  being  narrowest  near  the 
stump,  and  often  also  near  the  very  tip  of  the  stem. 
Generally  the  rings  are  widest  near  the  centre,  growing 
narrower  toward  the  bark.  In  logs  from  stunted  trees 
the  order  is  often  reversed,  the  interior  rings  being  thin 
and  the  outer  rings  widest.  Frequently,  too,  zones  or 
bands  of  very  narrow  rings,  representing  unfavorable 
periods  of  growth,  disturb  the  general  regularity.  Few 
trees,  even  among  pines,  furnish  a  log  with  truly  circular 
cross-section.  Usually  it  is  an  oval,  and  at  the  stump 
commonly  quite  an  irregular  figure.  Moreover,  even  in 
very  regular  or  circular  disks  the  pith  is  rarely  in  the 
centre,  and  frequently  one  radius  is  conspicuously  longer 
than  its  opposite,  the  width  of  some  rings,  if  not  all, 
being  greater  on  one  side  than  on  the  other.  This  is 
nearly  always  so  in  the  limbs,  the  lower  radius  exceed- 
ing the  upper.  In  extreme  cases,  especially  in  the  limbs, 
a  ring  is  frequently  conspicuous  on  one  side,  and  almost 
or  entirely  lost  to  view  on  the  other.  Where  the  rings 
are  extremely  narrow,  the  dark  portion  of  the  ring  is 
often  wanting,  the  color  being  quite  uniform  and  light. 
The  greater  regularity  or  irregularity  of  the  annual  rings 
has  much  to  do  with  the  technical  qualities  of  the  timber. 

SPUING    AND    SUMMER-WOOD 

Examining  the  rings  more  closely,  it  is  noticed  that 
each  ring  is  made  up  of  an  inner,  softer,  light-colored 


TIMBER  11 

and  an  outer,  or  peripheral,  firmer  and  darker-colored 
portion.     Being  formed  in  the  forepart  of  the  season, 
the  inner,  light-colored  part  is  termed  spring-wood,  the 
outer,  darker-portioned  being  the  summer-wood  of  the 
ring.    Since  the  latter  is  very  heavy  and  firm,  it  deter- 
mines to  a  very  large  extent  the  weight  and  strength 
of  the  wood,  and  as  its  darker  color  influences  the  shade 
of  color  of  the  entire  piece  of  wood,  this  color  effect 
becomes   a   valuable   aid   in   distinguishing  heavy   and 
strong  from  light  and  soft  pine  wood.     In  most  hard 
pines,  like  the  long-leaf,  the  dark  summer-wood  appears 
as  a  distinct  band,  so  that  the  yearly  ring  is  composed 
of  two  sharply  defined  bands — an  inner,  the  ^spring- 
wood,  ' '  and  an  outer,  the  ' '  summer-wood. ' '    But  in  some 
cases,  even  in  hard  pines,  and  normally  in  the  woods  of 
white  pines,  the  spring-wood  passes  gradually  into  the 
darker  summer-wood,  so  that  a  darkly  defined  line  occurs 
only  where  the  spring-wood  of  one  ring  abuts  against  the 
summer-wood  of  its  neighbor.    It  is  this  clearly  defined 
line  which  enables  the  eye  to  distinguish  even  the  very 
narrow  lines  in  old  pines  and  spruces.    In  some  cases, 
especially  in  the  trunks  of  Southern  pines,  and  normally 
on  the  lower  side  of  pine  limbs,  there  occur  dark  bands 
of  wood  in  the  spring-wood  portion  of  the  ring,  giving 
rise  to  false  rings,  which  mislead  in  a  superficial  count- 
ing of  rings.  In  the  disks  cut  from  limbs  these  dark  bands 
often  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  ring,  and  appear 
as  "runes,"  or  sickle-shaped  figures.    The  wood  of  these 
dark  bands  is  similar  to  that  of  the  true  summer-wood. 
The  cells  have  thick  walls,  but  usually  the  compressed  or 
flattened  form.     Normally,  the   summer-wood  forms  a 
greater  proportion  of  the  ring  in  the  part  of  the  tree 
formed  during  the  period  of  thriftiest  growth.     In  an 
old  tree  this  proportion  is  very  small  in  the  first  two  to 


12 


COOPERAGE 


five  rings  about  the  pith,  and  also  in  the  part  next  to  the 
bark,  the  intermediate  part  showing  a  greater  proportion 
of  summer-wood.  It  is  also  greatest  in  a  disk  taken  from 
near  the  stump,  and  decreases  upward  in  the  stem,  thus 
fully  accounting  for  the  difference  in  weight  and  firm- 
ness of  the  wood  of  these  different  parts.  In  the  long- 
leaf  pine  the  summer-wood  often  forms  scarcely  ten 
per  cent,  of  the  wood  in  the  central  five  rings;  forty  to 
fifty  per  cent,  of  the  next  one  hundred  rings ;  about  thirty 
per  cent,  of  the  next  fifty,  and  only  about  twenty  per 
cent,  in  the  fifty  rings  next  to  the  bark.  It  averages  forty- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  wood  of  the  stump  and  only  twenty- 
four  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  top.  Sawing  the  log  into 
boards,  the  yearly  rings  are  represented  on  the  board 
faces  of  the  middle  board  (radial  sections)  by  narrow 
parallel  stripes  (see  Fig.  1),  an  inner,  lighter  stripe 


FIG.  1.     BOARD  OF  PINE.     CS,  cross-section;  RS,  radial  section,  TS, 
tangential  section;  sw,  summer- wood ;  spw,  spring- wood. 


TIMBER 


13 


and  its  outer,  darker  neighbor  always  corresponding  to 
one  annual  ring.  On  the  faces  of  the  boards  nearest  the 
slab  (tangential  or  bastard  boards)  the  several  years' 
growth  should  also  appear  as  parallel,  but  much  broader 
stripes.  This  they  do  if  the  log  is  short  and  very  per- 
fect. Usually  a  variety  of  pleasing  patterns  is  displayed 
on  the  boards,  depending  on  the  position  of  the  saw  cut 
and  on  the  regularity  of  growth  of  the  log.  (See  Fig.  1.) 
Where  the  cut  passes  through  a  prominence  (bump  or 
crook)  of  the  log,  irregular,  concentric  circlets  and  ovals 
are  produced,  and  on  almost  all  tangent  boards  arrow 
or  V-shaped  forms  occur. 

ANATOMICAL  STEUCTUEE 

Holding  a  well-smoothed  disk  or  cross-section  one- 
eighth  inch  thick  toward  the  light,  it  is  readily  seen  that 
pine  wood  is  a  very  porous  structure.  If  viewed  with 

2 


FIG.  2.  WOOD  OF  SPRUCE.  1,  natural  size;  2,  small  part  of  one  ring  magni- 
fied 100  times.  The  vertical  tubes  are  wood  fibres,  in  this  case  all 
"tracheids."  m,  medullary  or  pith  ray;  n,  transverse  tracheids  of  pith 
ray:  a,  6,  and  c,  bordered  pits  of  the  tracheids,  more  enlarged. 


14 


COOPERAGE 


a  strong  magnifier,  the  little  tubes,  especially  in  the 
spring-wood  of  the  rings,  are  easily  distinguished,  and 
their  arrangement  in  regular,  straight,  radial  rows  is 
apparent.  Scattered  through  the  summer-wood  portion 
of  the  rings  numerous  irregular  grayish  dots 
(the  resin  ducts)  disturb  the  uniformity  and 
regularity  of  the  structure.  Magnified  one 
hundred  times,  a  piece  of  spruce,  which  is 
similar  to  pine,  presents  a  picture  like  that 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  Only  short  pieces  of  the 
tubes  or  cells  of  which  the  wood  is  composed 
are  represented  in  the  picture.  The  total 
length  of  these  fibres  is  from  one-twentieth 
to  one-fifth  inch,  being  smallest  near  the  pith, 
and  is  fifty  to  one  hundred  times  as  great 
as  their  width.  (See  Fig.  3.)  They  are 
tapered  and  closed  at  their  ends,  polygonal 
or  rounded  and  thin-walled,  with  large  cavity, 
lumen  or  internal  space  in  the  spring-wood, 
and  thick-walled  and  flattened  radially,  with 
the  internal  space  or  lumen  much  reduced  in 
the  summer-wood.  (See  right-hand  portion 
of  Fig.  2.)  This  flattening  together  with 
the  thicker  walls  of  the  cells,  which  reduces 
the  lumen,  causes  the  greater  firmness  and 
darker  color  of  the  summer-wood.  There 
is  more  material  in  the  same  volume.  As 
shown  in  the  figure,  the  tubes,  cells,  or 
' i  tracheids ' '  are  decorated  on  their  walls 
by  circlet-like  structures,  the  "bordered 
pits,"  sections  of  which  are  seen  more 

FIG.  3.  GROUP  OF  FIBRES  FROM  PINE  WOOD.  Partly  schematic.  The  little 
circles  are  "border  pits."  (See  Fig.  2,  a-c.)  The  transverse  rows  of 
square  pits  indicate  the  places  of  contact  of  these  fibres  and  the  cells 
of  the  neighboring  pith  rays.  Magnified  about  25  times. 


TIMBER  15 

magnified  at  a,  b  and  c,  Fig.  2.  These  pits  are  in  the 
nature  of  pores,  covered  by  very  thin  membranes,  and 
serve  as  waterways  between  the  cells  or  tracheids.  The 
dark  lines  on  the  side  of  the  smaller  piece  (1,  Fig.  2) 
appear  when  magnified  (in  2;  Fig.  2)  as  tiers  of  eight 
to  ten  rows  of  cells,  which  run  radially  (parallel  to  the 
rows  of  tubes  or  tracheids),  and  are  seen  as  bands  on 
the  radial  face  and  as  rows  of  pores  on  the  tangential 
face.  These  bands  or  tiers  of  cell  rows  are  the  medullary 
rays  or  pith  rays,  and  are  common  to  all  our  lumber 
woods.  In  the  pines  and  other  conifers  they  are  quite 
small,  but  they  can  readily  be  seen  even  without  a  mag- 
nifier. If  a  radial  surface  of  split-wood  (not  smoothed) 
is  examined,  the  entire  radial  face  will  be  seen  almost 
covered  with  these  tiny  structures,  which  appear  as  fine 
but  conspicuous  cross-lines.  As  shown  in  Fig.  2,  the 
cells  of  the  medullary  or  pith  rays  are  smaller  and  very 
much  shorter  than  the  wood  fibre  or  tracheids,  and  their 
long  axis  is  at  right  angles  to  that  of  the  fibre.  In  pines 
and  spruces  the  cells  of  the  upper  and  lower  rows  of 
each  tier  or  pith  ray  have  "  bordered "  pits,  like  those  of 
the  wood  fibre  or  tracheids  proper,  but  the  cells  of  the 
intermediate  rows  and  of  all  rows  in  the  rays  of  cedars, 
etc.,  have  only  "simple"  pits,  i.  e.,  pits  devoid  of  the 
saucer-like  "border"  or  rim.  In  pine,  many  of  the  pith 
rays  are  larger  than  the  majority,  each  containing  a 
whitish  line,  the  horizontal  resin  duct,  which  though  much 
smaller,  resembles  the  vertical  ducts  seen  on  the  cross- 
section.  The  larger  vertical  resin  ducts  are  best  observed 
on  removal  of  the  bark  from  a  fresh  piece  of  white  pine 
cut  in  winter,  where  they  appear  as  conspicuous  white 
lines,  extending  often  for  many  inches  up  and  down  the 
stem.  Neither  the  horizontal  nor  the  vertical  resin  ducts 


16  COOPERAGE 

are  vessels  or  cells,  but  are  openings  between  cells,  i.  e., 
intercellular  spaces,  in  which  the  resin  accumulates, 
freely  oozing  out  when  the  ducts  of  a  fresh  piece  of  sap- 
wood  are  cut.  They  are  present  only  in  our  coniferous 
woods,  and  even  here  they  are  restricted  to  pine,  spruce 
and  larch,  and  are  normally  absent  in  fir,  cedar,  cypress 
and  yew.  Altogether,  the  structure  of  coniferous  wood 
is  very  simple  and  regular,  the  bulk  being  made  up  of 
the  small  fibres  called  tracheids,  the  disturbing  elements 
of  pith  rays  and  resin  ducts  being  insignificant,  and  hence 
the  great  uniformity  and  great  technical  value  of  conifer- 
ous woods. 

LIST   OF   THE   MORE   IMPORTANT   CONIFEROUS   WOODS 

CEDAR. — Light,  soft,  stiff,  not  strong,  of  fine  texture; 
sap  and  heartwood  distinct,  the  former  lighter,  the 
latter  a  dull  grayish  brown  or  red.  The  wood  seasons 
rapidly,  shrinks  and  checks  but  little,  and  is  very 
durable.  Used  like  soft  pine,  but  owing  to  its  great 
durability  preferred  for  shingles,  etc.  Small  sizes 
used  for  posts,  ties,  etc.  Cedars  usually  occur  scat- 
tered, but  they  form  in  certain  localities  forests  of 
considerable  extent. 

a.  WHITE  CEDARS. — Heartwood  a  light  grayish  color. 

1.  WHITE   CEDAR    (Thuya  occidentalis)    (AREORVIT^). 
Scattered  along  streams  and  lakes,  frequently  covering 
extensive  swamps;  rarely  large  enough  for  lumber,  but 
commonly  used  for  posts,  ties,  etc.    Maine  to  Minnesota 
and  northward. 

2.  CANOE  CEDAR  (Thuya  gig ant ea)  (BED  CEDAR  OF  THE 
WEST).    In  Oregon  and  Washington  a  very  large  tree, 
covering   extensive    swamps;    in   the   mountains   much 
smaller,  skirting  the  water  courses ;  an  important  lumber 


TIMBER  17 

tree.    Washington  to  Northern  California  and  eastward 
to  Montana. 

3.  WHITE  CEDAR  (Chamcecyparis  thyoides).    Medium- 
sized  tree,  wood  very  light  and  soft.     Along  the  coast 
from  Maine  to  Mississippi. 

4.  WHITE  CEDAR  (Chamcecyparis  Lawsoniana)    (PORT 
ORFORD  CEDAR,  OREGON  CEDAR,  LAWSON'S  CYPRESS,  GINGER 
PINE).    A  very  large  tree,  extensively  cut  for  lumber; 
heavier  and  stronger  than  the  preceding.  Along  the  coast 
line  of  Oregon. 

5.  WHITE    CEDAR    (Libocedrus    decurrens)     (INCENSE 
CEDAR).  A  large  tree,  abundantly  scattered  among  pine 
and  fir ;  wood  fine-grained.    Cascades  and  Sierra  Nevada 
of  Oregon  and  California. 

b.  BED  CEDARS. — Heartwood  red. 

6.  RED  CEDAR   (Juniperus  Virginiana)    (SAVIN  JUNI- 
PER).    Similar  to  white  cedar,  but  of  somewhat  finer 
texture.   Used  in  cabinetwork,  for  cooperage,  for  veneers, 
and  especially  for  lead  pencils,  for  which  purpose  alone 
several  million  feet   are   cut  each  year.     A   small  to 
medium-sized  tree  scattered  through  the  forests,  or  in 
the    West    sparsely    covering    extensive    areas    (cedar 
brakes).     The  red  cedar  is  the  most  widely  distributed 
conifer  of  the  United  States,  occurring  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Pacific,  and  from  Florida  to  Minnesota,  but  attains 
a  suitable  size  for  lumber  only  in  the  Southern,  and  more 
especially  the  Gulf  States. 

7.  REDWOOD    (Sequoia  sempervirens).     Wood  in   its 
quality  and  uses  like  white  cedar,  the  narrow  sapwood 
whitish ;  the  heartwood  light  red,  soon  turning  to  brown- 
ish red  when  exposed.    A  very  large  tree,  limited  to  the 
coast  ranges  of  California,  and  forming  considerable  for- 
ests, which  are  rapidly  being  converted  into  lumber. 


18  COOPEEAGE 

CYPRESS. 

8.  CYPKESS    (Taxo'dium    disticJium)     (BALD    CYPKESS; 
BLACK,  WHITE,  AND  BED  CYPKESS).    Wood  in  its  appear- 
ance, quality,  and  uses  similar  to  white  cedar.    "  Black 
cypress"  and  "white  cypress"  are  heavy  and  light  forms 
of  the  same  species.    The  cypress  is  a  large,  deciduous 
tree,  occupying  much  of  the  swamp  and  overflow  land 
along  the  coast  and  rivers  of  the  Southern  States. 

FIR  — This  name  is  frequently  applied  to  wood  and  to 
trees  which  are  not  fir;  most  commonly  to  spruce, 
but  also,  especially  in  English  markets,  to  pine.  It 
resembles  spruce,  but  is  easily  distinguished  from  it, 
as  well  as  from  pine  and  larch,  by  the  absence  of 
resin  ducts.  Quality,  uses,  and  habits  similar  to 
spruce.  Used  extensively  for  fish  and  oil  cooper- 
age on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

9.  BALSAM   FIR   (Abies   balsamea).     A  medium-sized 
tree  scattered  throughout  the  northern  pineries;  cut  in 
lumber  operations  whenever  of  sufficient  size,  and  sold 
with  pine  or  spruce.     Minnesota  to  Maine  and  north- 
ward. 

10.  WHITE  FIE  (Abies  grandis  and  Abies  concolor). 
Medium  to  very  large- sized  tree,  forming  an  important 
part  of  most  of  the  Western  mountain  forests,  and  fur- 
nishing much  of  the  lumber  of  the  respective  regions. 
The  former  occurs  from  Vancouver  to  Central  California 
and  eastward  to  Montana;  and  the  latter  from  Oregon 
to  Arizona  and  eastward  to  Colorado  and  New  Mexico. 

11.  WHITE   FIE    (Abies  amabalis).     Good-sized  tree, 
often    forming    extensive    mountain    forests.      Cascade 
Mountains  of  Washington  and  Oregon. 

12.  BED  FIE  (Abies  nobilis)  (not  to  be  confounded  with 
Douglas  spruce.    See  No.  37).    Large  to  very  large  tree, 


TIMBER  19 

forming  extensive  forests  on  the  slope  of  the  mountains 
between  3,000  and  4,000  feet  elevation.  Cascade  Moun- 
tains of  Oregon. 

13.  BED  FIK  (Abies  magnified).    Very  large  tree,  form- 
ing forests  about  the  base  of  Mount  Shasta.     Sierra 
Nevada  of  California,  from  Mount  Shasta  southward. 

HEMLOCK. — Light  to  medium  weight,  soft,  stiff  but 
brittle,  commonly  cross-grained,  rough  and  splin- 
tery; sapwood  and  heartwood  not  well  defined;  the 
wood  of  a  light  reddish-gray  color,  free  from  resin 
ducts,  moderately  durable,  shrinks  and  warps  consid- 
erably, wears  rough,  retains  nails  firmly.  Used  prin- 
cipally for  dimension  stuff  and  timbers.  Hemlocks 
are  medium  to  large-sized  trees,  commonly  scattered 
among  broad-leaved  trees  and  conifers,  but  often 
forming  forests  of  almost  pure  growth. 

14.  HEMLOCK  (Tsuga  canadensis) .    Medium-sized  tree, 
furnishes  almost  all  the  hemlock  of  the  Eastern  market. 
Maine   to   Wisconsin;    also   following   the   Alleghanies 
southward  to  Georgia  and  Alabama. 

15.  HEMLOCK  (Tsuga  mertensiana) .    Large-sized  tree, 
wood  claimed  to  be  heavier  and  harder  than  the  Eastern 
form  and  of  superior  quality.    Washington  to  California 
and  eastward  to  Montana. 

LARCH  OR  TAMARACK.-Wood  like  the  best  of  hard 
pine  both  in  appearance,  quality,  and  uses,  and  owing 
to  its  great  durability  somewhat  preferred  in  ship- 
building, for  telegraph  poles,  and  railroad  ties.  In 
its  structure  it  resembles  spruce.  The  larches  are 
deciduous  trees,  occasionally  covering  considerable 
areas,  but  usually  scattered  among  other  conifers. 

16.  TAMARACK     (Larix    Americana)     (HACKMATACK). 


20  COOPEEAGE 

Medium-sized  tree,  often  covering  swamps,  in  which  case 
it  is  smaller  and  of  poor  quality.  Maine  to  Minnesota, 
and  southward  to  Pennsylvania. 

17.  TAMAKACK  (L.  occidentals).  Large-sized  trees, 
scattered,  locally  abundant.  Washington  and  Oregon  to 
Montana. 

PINE. — Very  variable,  very  light  and  soft  in  "soft" 
pine,  such  as  white  pine ;  of  medium  weight  to  heavy 
and  quite  hard  in  "hard"  pine,  of  which  long-leaf  or 
Georgia  pine  is  the  extreme  form.  Usually  it  is  stiff, 
quite  strong,  of  even  texture,  and  more' or  less  res- 
inous. The  sapwood  is  yellowish  white;  the  heart- 
wood,  orange  brown.  Pine  shrinks  moderately,  sea- 
sons rapidly  and  without  much  injury ;  it  works  eas- 
ily;  is  never  too  hard  to  nail  (unlike  oak  or  hickory) ; 
it  is  mostly  quite  durable,  and  if  well  seasoned  is 
not  subject  to  the  attacks  of  boring  insects.  The 
heavier  the  wood,  the  darker,  stronger,  and  harder 
it  is  and  the  more  it  shrinks  and  checks.  Pine  is 
used  more  extensively  than  any  other  kind  of  wood. 
It  is  the  principal  wood  in  common  carpentry,  as 
well  as  in  all  heavy  construction,  bridges,  trestles, 
etc.  It  is  also  used  in  almost  every  other  wood  in- 
dustry :  for  spars,  masts,  planks,  and  timbers  in  ship- 
building; in  car  and  wagon  construction;  in  cooper- 
age, for  crates  and  boxes ;  in  furniture  work,  for  toys 
and  patterns,  water  pipes,  excelsior,  etc.,  etc.  Pines 
are  usually  large  trees  with  few  branches,  the 
straight,  cylindrical,  useful  stem  forming  by  far  the 
greatest  part  of  the  tree.  They  occur  gregariously, 
forming  vast  forests,  a  fact  which  greatly  facilitates 
their  exploitation.  Of  the  many  special  terms  applied 


TIMBER  21 

to  pine  as  lumber,  denoting  sometimes  differences 
in  quality,  the  following  deserve  attention: 

" White  pine,"  "pumpkin  pine,"  "soft  pine"  in 
the  Eastern  markets  refer  to  the  wood  of  the  white 
pine  (Pinus  strobus),  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast  to 
that  of  the  sugar  pine  (Pinus  lambertiana). 

"Yellow  pine"  is  applied  in  the  trade  to  all  the 
Southern  lumber  pines;  in  the  Northeast  it  is  also 
applied  to  the  pitch  pine  (P.  rigida) ;  in  the  West 
it  refers  mostly  to  the  bull  pine  (P.  ponderosa). 

Yellow  long-leaf  pine,  "Georgia  pine,"  chiefly 
used  in  advertisement,  refers  to  the  long-leaf  pine 
(P.  palustris). 

a.  SOFT  PINES. 

18.  WHITE  PINE  (Pinus  strobus).    Large  to  very  large- 
sized  tree.    For  the  last  fifty  years  the  most  important 
timber  tree  of  the  Union,  furnishing  the  best  quality  of 
soft  pine.     Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  New  Eng- 
land, along  the  Alleghanies  to  Georgia. 

19.  SUGAE  PINE  (Pinus  lambertiana).     A  very  large 
tree,  together  with  Abies  concolor  forming  extensive  for- 
ests.   Important  lumber  tree.    Oregon  to  California. 

20.  WHITE  PINE  (Pinus  monticolo).    A  large  tree,  at 
home  in  Montana,  Idaho,  and  the  Pacific  States.    Most 
common  and  locally  used  in  Northern  Idaho. 

21.  WHITE  PINE  (Pinus  flexilis).    A  small  tree,  form- 
ing mountain  forests  of  considerable  extent  and  locally 
used.    Eastern  Bocky  Mountain  slopes,  Montana  to  New 
Mexico. 

b.  HAKD  PINES. 

22.  LONG-LEAF  PINE  (Pinus  palustris)  (GEOKGIA  PINE, 
YELLOW   PINE,   LONG-STKAW   PINE,   ETC.).     Large   tree. 


22  COOPERAGE 

Forms  extensive  forests  and  furnishes  the  hardest  and 
strongest  pine  lumber  in  the  market.  Coast  region  from 
North  Carolina  to  Texas. 

23.  BULL  PINE    (Pinus   ponder osa)    (YELLOW   PINE). 
Medium  to  very  large-sized  tree,  forming  extensive  for- 
ests in  Pacific  and  Eocky  Mountain  regions.    Furnishes 
most  of  the  hard  pines  of  the  West ;  sapwood  wide ;  wood 
very  variable. 

24.  LOBLOLLY  PINE    (Pinus  tceda)    (SLASH  PINE,  OLD 
FIELD  PINE,   EOSEMAKY  PINE,   SAP  PINE,   SHOBT-STKAW 
PINE,  ETC.).    Large-sized  tree.    Forms  extensive  forests; 
wider-ringed,  coarser,  lighter,  softer,  with  more  sapwood 
than  the  long-leaf  pine,  but  the  two  are  often  confounded. 
This   is   the    common   lumber   pine   from   Virginia    to 
South  Carolina,  and  is  found  extensively  in  Arkansas 
and  Texas.     Southern  States,  Virginia  to  Texas  and 
Arkansas. 

25.  NORWAY  PINE  (Pinus  resinosa).    Large-sized  tree, 
never  forming  forests,  usually   scattered  or  in   small 
groves,  together  with  white  pine;  largely  sapwood  and 
hence  not  durable.    Minnesota  to  Michigan ;  also  in  New 
England  to  Pennsylvania. 

26.  SHORT-LEAF  PINE  (Pinus  echinata)   (SLASH  PINE, 
CAROLINA  PINE,  YELLOW  PINE,  OLD  FIELD  PINE).    Eesem- 
bles  loblolly  pine ;  often  approaches  in  its  wood  the  Nor- 
way pine.     The  common  lumber  pine  of  Missouri  and 
Arkansas.    North  Carolina  to  Texas  and  Missouri. 

27.  CUBAN  PINE  (Pinus  cubensis)  (SLASH  PINE,  SWAMP 
PINE,  BASTARD  PINE,  MEADOW  PINE).     Eesembles  long- 
leaf  pine,  but  commonly  has  wider  sapwood  and  coarser 
grain;  does  not  enter  the  markets  to  any  great  extent. 
Along  the  coast  from  South  Carolina  to  Louisiana. 


TIMBEE  23 

28.  BULL  PINE  (Pinus  jeffreyi)  (BLACK  PINE).    Large- 
sized  tree,  wood  resembling  bull  pine  (Pinus  ponder  osa] ; 
used  locally  in  California,  replacing  P.  ponderosa  at  high 
altitudes. 

29.  BLACK  PINE  (Pinus  murrayana)  (LODGE  POLE  PINE, 
TAMARACK).    Eocky  Mountains  and  Pacific  regions. 

30.  PITCH  PINE  (Pinus  rigida).    Along  the  coast  from 
New  York  to  Georgia,  and  along  the  mountains  to  Ken- 
tucky. 

31.  JERSEY  PINE  (Pinus  inops)   ( SCRUB  PINE).    Along 
the  coast  from  New  York  to  Georgia  and  along  the  moun- 
tains to  Kentucky. 

32.  GRAY    PINE     (Pinus    banksiana)     (SCRUB    PINE). 
Maine,  Vermont,  and  Michigan  to  Minnesota. 

REDWOOD.     (See  CEDAR.) 

SPRUCE. — Eesembles  soft  pine,  is  light,  very  soft,  stiff, 
moderately  strong,  less  resinous  than  pine;  has  no 
distinct  heartwood,  and  is  of  whitish  color.  Used 
like  soft  pine,  but  also  employed  as  resonance  wood 
and  preferred  for  paper  pulp.  Used  for  all  classes 
of  cooperage  and  woodenware  on  the  Pacific  Coast, 
taking  to  some  extent  the  place  of  oak  for  wine  coop- 
erage. Spruces,  like  pines,  form  extensive  forests. 
They  are  more  frugal,  thrive  on  thinner  soils,  and 
bear  more  shade,  but  usually  require  a  more  humid 
climate.  " Black "  and  "white"  spruce  as  applied 
by  lumbermen  usually  refer  to  narrow  and  wide- 
ringed  forms  of  the  black  spruce  (Picea  nigra). 

33.  BLACK  SPRUCE  (Picea  nigra).    Medium-sized  tree, 
forms  extensive  forests  in  Northeastern  United  States 
and  in  British  America ;  occurs  scattered  or  in  groves,  es- 
pecially in  low  lands  throughout  the  northern  pineries. 


24  COOPERAGE 

Important  lumber  tree  in  Eastern  United  States.  Maine 
to  Minnesota,  British  America,  and  on  the  Alleghanies 
to  North  Carolina. 

34.  WHITE  SPKUCE  (Picea  alba).    Generally  associated 
with  the  preceding.    Most  abundant  along  streams  and 
lakes,  grows  largest  in  Montana  and  forms  the  most  im- 
portant tree  of  the  subarctic  forest  of  British  America. 
Northern  United  States  from  Maine  to  Minnesota;  also 
from  Montana  to  Pacific,  British  America. 

35.  WHITE  SPKUCE   (Picea  engelmanni).     Medium  to 
large-sized  tree,  forming  extensive  forests  at  elevations 
from  5,000  to  10,000  feet  above  sea  level ;  resembles  the 
preceding,  but  occupies  a  different  station.    A  very  im- 
portant timber  tree  in  the  central  and  southern  parts  of 
the  Eocky  Mountains.     Rocky  Mountains  from  Mexico 
to  Montana. 

36.  TIDE  LAND  SPKUCE   (Picea  sitchensis).     A  large- 
sized  tree,  forming  an  extensive  coast-belt  forest.    Along 
the  seacoast  from  Alaska  to  Central  California.    Used 
extensively  for  cooperage  and  woodenware  in  the  West. 

BASTARD  SPRUCE.— Spruce  or  fir  in  name,  but  re- 
sembling hard  pine  or  larch  in  the  appearance,  qual- 
ity, and  uses  of  its  wood. 

37.  DOUGLAS  SPRUCE  (Pseudotsuga  douglasii)  (YELLOW 
FIR,  RED  FIR,  OREGON  PINE).    One  of  the  most  important 
trees  of  the  Western  United  States ;  grows  very  large  in 
the  Pacific  States,  to  fair  size  in  all  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains, in  Colorado  up  to  about  10,000  feet  above  sea  level ; 
forms  extensive  forests,  often  of  pure  growth.     Wood 
very  variable,  usually  coarse-grained  and  heavy,  with 
very  pronounced  summer-wood,  hard  and  strong  ("red" 
fir),  but  often  fine-grained  and  light  (" yellow"  fir).    It 
replaces  hard  pine  and  is  especially  suited  to  heavy  con- 


TIMBER 


25 


struction.     From  the  plains  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  from 
Mexico  to  British  America. 

TAMARACK.      (See  LARCH.) 

YEW. — Wood  heavy,  hard,  extremely  stiff  and  strong,  of 
fine  texture  with  a  pale  yellow  sapwood,  and  an 
orange-red  heart;  seasons  well  and  is  quite  dur- 
able. Yew  is  extensively  used  for  archery,  bows, 
turners'  ware,  etc.  The  yews  form  no  forests,  but 
occur  scattered  with  other  conifers. 

38.  YEW  (Taxus  brevifolia).  A  small  to  medium-sized 
tree  of  the  Pacific  region. 

WOOD  OF  BROAD-LEAVED  TREES. 

On  a  cross-section  of  oak,  the  same  arrangement  of 
pith  and  bark,  of  sapwood  and  heartwood,  and  the  same 
disposition  of  the  wood  in  well-defined  concentric  or 

annual  rings  occur,  but  the  rings 
are  marked  by  lines  or  rows  of 
conspicuous  pores  or  openings, 

Ili-j!.'  i>J    '   1 1  l!iJ%     which  occupy  the  greater  part  of 
\>t ;.:• ,;,  '^  the  spring-wood  for  each  ring  (see 

Fig.  4,  also  6),  and  are,  in  fact, 
the  hollows  of  vessels  through 
which  the  cut  has  been  made.  On 
the  radial  section  or  quarter-sawn 
board  the  several  layers  appear  as 
so  many  stripes  (see  Fig.  5) ;  on 
the  tangential  section  or  "bas- 
tard" face  patterns  similar  to 
those  mentioned  for  pine  wood  are 
observed.  But  while  the  patterns 


FIG.  4.  BLOCK  OP  OAK. 
C.  S. ,  cross  section ;  R.  8. ,  ra- 
dial section;  T.8  ,  tangential 
section;  m.r.,  medullary  or 
pith  ray;  a,  height;  b,  width, 
and  e,  length  of  pith  ray. 


in  hard  pine  are  marked  by  the  darker  summer-wood, 
and    are    composed    of    plain,    alternating    stripes    of 


26 


COOPERAGE 


FlG.  5.  BOARD  OF  OAK.  C8,  cross-section;  It 8,  radial  section;  T8,  tan- 
gential section;  v,  vessels  or  pores,  cut  through;  A,  slight  curve  in  log 
which  appears  in  section  as  an  islet. 


FIG.'  6.    CROSS-SECTION  OF  OAK  MAGNIFIED  ABOUT  5  TIMES. 


TIMBER  27 

darker  and  lighter  wood,  the  figures  in  oak  (and  other 
broad-leaved  woods)  are  due  chiefly  to  the  vessels, 
those  of  the  spring-wood  in  oak  being  the  most  con- 
spicuous. (See  Fig.  5).  So  that  in  an  oak  table,  the 
darker,  shaded  parts  are  the  spring-wood,  the  lighter 
unicolored  parts  the  summer-wood.  On  closer  exam- 
ination of  the  smooth  cross-section  of  oak,  the  spring- 
wood  part  of  the  ring  is  found  to  be  formed  in  great 
part  of  pores ;  large,  round,  or  oval  openings  made  by 
the  cut  through  long  vessels.  These  are  separated  by 
a  grayish  and  quite  porous  tissue  (see  Fig.  6,  A),  which 
continues  here  and  there  in  the  form  of  radial,  often 
branched,  patches  (not  the  pith  rays)  into  and  through, 
the  summer-wood  to  the  spring-wood  of  the  next  ring. 
The  large  vessels  of  the  spring-wood,  occupying  six  to 
ten  per  cent,  of  the  volume  of  a  log  in  very  good  oak, 
and  twenty-five  per  cent,  or  more  in  inferior  and  narrow- 
ringed  timber,  are  a  very  important  feature,  since  it  is 
evident  that  the  greater  their  share  in  the  volume,  the 
lighter  and  weaker  the  wood.  They  are  smallest  near 
the  pith,  and  grow  wider  outward.  They  are  wider  in 
the  stem  than  limb,  and  seem  to  be  of  indefinite  length, 
forming  open  channels,  in  some  cases  probably  as  long 
as  the  tree  itself.  Scattered  through  the  radiating  gray 
patches  of  porous  wood  are  vessels  similar  to  those  of 
the  spring-wood,  but  decidedly  smaller.  These  vessels 
are  usually  fewer  and  larger  near  the  spring-wood,  and 
smaller  and  more  numerous  in  the  outer  portions  of  the 
ring.  Their  number  and  size  can  be  utilized  to  distin- 
guish the  oaks  classed  as  white  oaks  from  those  classed 
as  black  and  red  oaks.  They  are  fewer  and  larger  in 
red  oaks,  smaller  but  much  more  numerous  in  white  oaks. 
The  summer-wood,  except  for  these  radial  grayish 
patches,  is  dark  colored  and  firm.  This  firm  portion,  di- 


28 


COOPERAGE 


vided  into  bodies  or  strands  by  these  patches  of  porous 
wood,  and  also  by  fine  wavy,  concentric  lines  of  short, 
thin- walled  cells  (see  Fig.  6,  A),  consists  of  thin-walled 
fibres  (see  Fig.  7,  B),  and  is  the  chief  element  of  strength 

in  oak  wood.  In  good  white 
oak  it  forms  one-half  or 
more  of  the  wood,  if  it  cuts 
like  horn,  and  the  cut  sur- 
face is  shiny,  and  of  a  deep 
chocolate  brown  color.  In 
very  narrow-ringed  wood 
and  in  inferior  red  oak  it 
is  usually  much  reduced  in 
quantity  as  well  as  quality. 
The  pith  rays  of  the  oak, 


unlike  those  of  the  conifer- 
ous woods,  are  at  least  in 
part  very  large  and  con- 
spicuous. (See  Fig.  4,  their 


FIG.  7.  PORTION  OF  THE  FIRM  BODIES 

OF  FIBRES  WITH  Two  CELLS  OP 

A  SMALL  PITH  RAY.    mr, 

Highly  magnified. 

height  indicated  by  the  letter  a,  and  their  width  by 
the  letter  b.)  The  large  medullary  rays  of  oak  are 
often  twenty  and  more  cells  wide  and  several  hundred 
cell  rows  m  height,  which  amount  commonly  to  one  or 
more  inches.  These  large  rays  are  conspicuous  on  all 
sections.  They  appear  as  long,  sharp,  grayish  lines  on 
the  cross-section;  as  short,  thick  lines,  tapering  at  each 
end,  on  the  tangential  or  "  bastard "  face,  and  as  broad, 
shiny  bands,  "the  mirrors, "  on  the  radial  section.  In 
addition  to  these  coarse  rays,  there  is  also  a  large  number 
of  small  pith  rays,  which  can  be  seen  only  when  magni- 
fied. On  the  whole,  the  pith  rays  form  a  much  larger  part 
of  the  wood  than  might  be  supposed.  In  specimens  of 
good  white  oak  it  has  been  found  that  they  formed  about 
sixteen  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  wood. 


TIMBEE  29 

MINUTE   STKUCTUKE 

If  a  well- smoothed  thin  disk  or  cross-section  of  oak 
(say  one- sixteenth  inch  thick)  is  held  up  to  the  light,  it 
looks  very  much  like  a  sieve,  the  pores  or  vessels  appear- 
ing as  clean-cut  holes.  The  spring-wood  and  gray 
patches  are  seen  to  be  quite  porous,  but  the  firm  bodies 
of  fibres  between  them  are  dense  and  opaque.  Examined 
with  the  magnifier  it  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  no  such 
regularity  of  arrangement  in  straight  rows  as  is  con- 
spicuous in  pine.  On  the  contrary,  great  irregularity 
prevails.  At  the  same  time,  while  the  pores  are  as  large 
as  pin  holes,  the  cells  of  the  denser  wood,  unlike  those 
of  pine  wood,  are  too  small  to  be  distinguished.  Studied 
with  the  microscope,  each  vessel  is  found  to  be  a  vertical 
row  of  a  great  number  of  short,  wide  tubes,  joined  end  to 
end.  (See  Fig.  8,  c.)  The  porous  spring-wood  and  radial 
gray  tracts  are  partly  composed  of  smaller  vessels,  but 
chiefly  of  tracheids,  .like  those  of  pine,  and  of  shorter 
cells,  the  "wood  parenchyma,"  resembling  the  cells  of 
the  medullary  rays.  These  latter,  as  well  as  the  fine  con- 
centric lines  mentioned  as  occurring  in  the  summer-wood, 
are  composed  entirely  of  short,  tube-like  parenchyma 
cells,  with  square  or  oblique  ends.  (See  Fig.  8,  a  and  &.) 
The  wood  fibres  proper,  which  form  the  dark,  firm  bodies 
referred  to,  are  very  fine,  thread-like  cells,  one-twenty- 
fifth  to  one-tenth  inch  long,  with  a  wall  commonly  so 
thick  that  scarcely  any  empty  internal  space  or  lumen 
remains.  (See  Figs.  8,  e,  and  7  B.)  If,  instead  of  oak, 
a  piece  of  poplar  or  basswood  (see  Fig.  9)  had  been  used 
in  this  study,  the  structure  would  have  been  found  to  be 
quite  different.  The  same  kinds  of  cell-elements,  vessels, 
etc.,  are  to  be  sure,  present,  but  their  combination  and  ar- 
rangement are  different,  and  thus  from  the  great  variety 


30 


COOPERAGE 


of  possible  combinations  results  the  great  variety  of 
structure  and,  in  consequence,  of  the  qualities  which  dis- 
tinguish the  wood  of  broad-leaved  trees.  The  sharp  dis- 
tinction of  sapwood  and  heart- 
wood  is  wanting;  the  rings  are 
not  so  clearly  defined,  the  vessels 
of  the  wood  are  small,  very  nu- 
merous, and  rather  evenly  scat- 
tered through  the  wood  of  the 
annual  ring,  so  that  the  distinc- 
tion of  the  ring  almost  vanishes 
and  the  medullary  or  pith  rays 
in  poplar  can  be  seen  without  be- 
ing magnified  only  on  the  radial 
section. 


-   s  •„ 

"\  I 


FIG.  8.  ISOLATED  FIBRES  AND 
CELLS.  a,  Four  cells  of 
wood,  parenchyma;  b,  two 
cells  from  a  pith  ray;  c,  a 
single  joint  or  cell  of  a  ves- 
sel, the  openings  x  leading 
into  its  upper  and  lower 
neighbors;  d,  tracheid;  e, 
wood  fibre  proper. 


LIST    OF    MOST    IMPORTANT     BROAD- 
LEAVED  TREES  (HARDWOODS) 

Woods  of  complex  and  very 
variable  structure,  and  therefore 
differing  widely  in  quality,  be- 
havior, and  consequently  in  ap- 
plicability to  the  arts. 

ASH. — Wood  heavy, hard,  strong, 
stiff,  quite  tough,  not  dur- 
able in  contact  with  soil, 
straight-grained,  rough  on 
the  split  surfaces  and  coarse 
in  texture.  The  wood  shrinks 
moderately,  seasons  with  lit- 
tle injury,  stands  well  and 
takes  a  good  polish.  In  car- 


pentry, ash  is  used  for  stair- 
ways, panels,  etc.;  it  is  used  in  shipbuilding^  in  the 
construction  of  cars,  wagons,  etc. ;  in  the  manufacture 


TIMBER 


31 


of  farm  implements,  machinery,  and  especially  of  fur- 
niture of  all  kinds ;  for  cooperage,  baskets,  oars,  tool 
handles,  hoops,  etc.  The  trees  of  the  several  species 


FIG.  9.     CROSS-SECTION  OF  BASSWOOD  (MAGNIFIED),    v,  Vessels;  mr,  pith 

rays. 

of  ash  are  rapid  growers,  of  small  to  medium  height 
with  stout  trunks.  They  form  no  forests,  but  occur 
scattered  in  almost  all  our  broad-leaved  forests. 

1.  WHITE  ASH  (Fraxinus  Americana).    Medium,  some- 
times large-sized  tree.    Basin  of  the  Ohio,  but  found  from 
Maine  to  Minnesota  and  Texas. 

2.  BED  ASH  (Fraxinus  pubescens).    Small-sized  tree. 
North  Atlantic  States,  but  extends  to  the  Mississippi. 

3.  BLACK  ASH   (Fraxinus  sambuci  folia)    (Hoop  ASH, 
GROUND  ASH).    Medium-sized  tree,  very  common.    Maine 
to  Minnesota  and  southward  to  Alabama. 

4.  BLUE   ASH    (Fraxinus   quadrangulata) .     Small  to 
medium-sized  tree.     Indiana  and  Illinois;  occurs  from 
Michigan  to  Minnesota  and  southward  to  Alabama. 

5.  GREEN  ASH   (Fraxinus  viridis).     Small-sized  tree. 
New  York  to  the  Eocky  Mountains,  and  southward  to 
Florida  and  Arizona. 

6.  OREGON  ASH   (Fraxinus  Oregana).     Medium-sized 
tree.    Western  Washington  to  California. 


32  COOPERAGE 

ASPEN.    (See  POPLAK.) 

BASSWOOD. 

7.  BASSWOOD  (Tilia  Americana)  (LIME  TBEE,  AMEKICAN 
LINDEN,  LIN,  BEE  TKEE).    Wood  light,  soft,  stiff  but  not 
strong,  of  fine  texture,  and  white  to  light  brown  color. 
The  wood  shrinks  considerably  in  drying,  works  and 
stands  well.    It  is  used  for  cooperage,  in  carpentry,  in 
the  manufacture   of   furniture   and   woodenware,   both 
turned  and  carved;  for  toys,  also  for  panelling  of  car 
and  carriage  bodies.    Medium  to  large-sized  tree.    Com- 
mon in  all  northern  broad-leaved  forests ;  found  through- 
out the  Eastern  United  States. 

8.  WHITE  BASSWOOD    (Tilia  heterophylla).     A  small- 
sized  tree  most  abundant  in  the  Alleghany  region. 

BEECH. 

9.  BEECH    (Fagus  ferruginea).     Wood  heavy,   hard, 
stiff,   strong,  of  rather  coarse  texture,  white  to  light 
brown  in  color,  not  durable  in  the  ground,  and  subject 
to  the  inroads  of  boring  insects.    It  shrinks  and  checks 
considerably  in  drying,  works  and  stands  well  and  takes 
a  good  polish.    Used  extensively  in  slack  cooperage,  for 
furniture,  in  turnery,  for  handles,  lasts,  etc.     Abroad 
it  is  very  extensively  used  by  the  carpenter,  millwright, 
and  wagon  maker,  in  turnery  and  wood  carving.     The 
beech  is  a  medium-sized  tree,  common,  sometimes  form- 
ing forests.    Most  abundant  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
basin,  but  found  from  Maine  to  Wisconsin  and  south- 
ward to  Florida. 

BIRCH. — Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  of  fine  texture;  sap- 
wood  whitish,  heartwood  in  shades  of  brown  with 
red  and  yellow;  very  handsome,  with  satiny  lustre, 
equalling  cherry.  The  wood  shrinks  considerably 


TIMBER  33 

in  drying,  works  well  and  stands  well  and  takes  a 
good  polish,  but  is  not  durable  if  exposed.  Birch 
is  used  extensively  for  hoops  in  cooperage;  for  fin- 
ishing lumber  in  building,  in  the  manufacture  of 
furniture,  in  wood  turnery ;  for  spools,  boxes,  wooden 
shoes,  etc. ;  for  shoe  lasts  and  pegs ;  for  wagon  hubs, 
ox  yokes,  etc.;  also  in  wood  carving.  The  birches 
are  medium-sized  trees,  form  extensive  forests 
northward,  and  occur  scattered  in  all  broad-leaved 
forests  of  the  Eastern  United  States. 

10.  CHEEKY  BIKCH  (Betula  lento)  (BLACK  BIRCH,  SWEET 
BIRCH,   MAHOGANY    BIRCH).      Medium- sized   tree,   very 
common.    Maine  to  Michigan  and  to  Tennessee. 

11.  YELLOW  BIRCH  (Betula  lutea)  (GRAY  BIRCH).    Me- 
dium-sized tree ;  common.  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  south- 
ward to  Tennessee. 

12.  RED  BIRCH  (Betula  nigra)  (RIVER  BIRCH).    Small 
to  medium-sized  tree ;  very  common ;  lighter  and  less  val- 
uable than  the  preceding.    New  England  to  Texas  and 
Missouri. 

13.  CANOE  BIRCH  (Betula  papyrifera)  (WHITE  BIRCH, 
PAPER  BIRCH).    Generally  a  small  tree;  common,  form- 
ing forests;  wood  of  good  quality  but  light.    All  along 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States  and  north- 
ward, from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

BLACK  WALNUT.  (See  WALNUT.) 

BLUE  BEECHo 

14.  BLUE  BEECH  (Carpinus  Caroliniana)   (HORNBEAM, 
WATER   BEECH,   IRONWOOD).     Wood  very   heavy,   hard, 
strong,  very  stiff,  of  rather  fine  texture,  and  white  color; 
not  durable  in  the  ground;  shrinks  and  checks  consid- 
erably in  drying,  but  works  well  and  stands  well.    Used 


34  COOPERAGE 

chiefly  in  turnery  for  tool  handles,  etc.  Abroad,  much 
used  by  mill  and  wheelwrights.  A  small  tree,  largest  in 
the  Southwest,  but  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  East- 
ern United  States. 

BOIS  D'ARC.    (See  OSAGE  OKANGE.) 

BUCKEYE  (HOBSE  CHESTNUT).  Wood  light,  soft,  not 
strong,  often  quite  tough,  of  fine  and  uniform  texture 
and  creamy  white  color.  It  shrinks  considerably  in 
drying,  but  works  and  stands  well.  Used  for  wood- 
enware,  artificial  limbs,  paper  pulp,  and  locally  also 
for  building  purposes.  Small-sized  trees,  scattered, 
never  forming  forests. 

15.  OHIO  BUCKEYE  (2Esculus  glabra)  (FETID  BUCKEYE). 
Alleghanies,  Pennsylvania  to  Indian  Territory. 

16.  SWEET  BUCKEYE    (^Esculus  flava).     Alleghanies, 
Pennsylvania  to  Texas. 

BUTTERNUT. 

17.  BUTTERNUT  (Juglans  cinerea)    (WHITE  WALNUT). 
Wood  very  similar  to  black  walnut,  but  light,  quite  soft, 
not  strong  and  of  light  brown  color.     Used  chiefly  for 
finishing  lumber,  cabinet  work,  and  cooperage.    Medium- 
sized  tree,  largest  and  most  common  in  the  Ohio  basin. 
Maine  to  Minnesota  and  southward  to  Georgia  and  Ala- 
bama. 

CATALPA. 

18.  CATALPA  (Catalpa  speciosa).    Wood  light,  soft,  not 
strong,  brittle,  durable,  of  coarse  texture  and  brown 
color.    Used  for  ties  and  posts,  but  well  suited  for  a  great 
variety  of  uses.    Medium-sized  tree.    Lower  basin  of  the 
Ohio  River,  locally  common.     Extensively  planted,  and 
therefore  promising  to  become  of  some  importance. 


TIMBER  35 

CHERRY. 

19.  CHEEKY   (Prunus  serotina).     Wood  heavy,  hard, 
strong,  of  fine  texture;  sapwood  yellowish  white,  heart- 
wood  reddish  to  brown.    The  wood  shrinks  considerably 
in  drying,  works  well  and  stands  well,  takes  a  good  polish, 
and  is  much  esteemed  for  its  beauty.    Cherry  is  chiefly 
used  as  a  decorative  finishing  lumber  for  buildings,  cars, 
and  boats,  also  for  furniture  and  in  turnery.    It  is  becom- 
ing too  costly  for  many  purposes  for  which  it  is  naturally 
well  suited.    The  lumber  furnishing  cherry  of  this  coun- 
try, the  wild  black  cherry  (Primus  serotina),  is  a  small 
to  medium-sized  tree,  scattered  through  many  of  the 
broad-leaved  woods  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  but  found  from  Michigan  to  Florida  and  west 
to  Texas.     Other  species  of  this  genus,  as  well  as  the 
hawthorns  (cratcegus)  and  wild  apple  (Pyrus),  are  not 
commonly  offered  in  the  market.    Their  wood  is  of  the 
same  character  as  cherry,  often  even  finer,  but  in  small 
dimensions. 

CHESTNUT. 

20.  CHESTNUT    (Castanea   vulgaris   var.   Americana). 
Wood  light,  moderately  soft,  stiff,  not  strong,  of  coarse 
texture ;  the  sapwood  light,  the  heartwood  darker  brown. 
It  shrinks  and  checks  considerably  in  drying,  works  eas- 
ily, stands  well,  and  is  very  durable.    Used  in  cooper- 
age, cabinet  work,  for  railway  ties,  telegraph  poles,  and 
locally  in  heavy  construction.    Medium-sized  tree.    Very 
common  in  the  Alleghanies.    Occurs  from  Maine  to  Mich- 
igan and  southward  to  Alabama. 

21.  CHINQUAPIN    (Castanea    pumila).     A   small-sized 
tree,  with  wood  slightly  heavier  but  otherwise  similar  to 
the  preceding.     Most  common  in  Arkansas,  but  with 
nearly  the  same  range  as  the  chestnut. 


36  COOPERAGE 

22.  CHINQUAPIN   (Castanopsis  chrysophylld).     A  me- 
dium-sized tree  of  the  western  ranges  of  California  and 
Oregon. 

COFFEE  TREE. 

23.  COFFEE  TREE  (Gymnocladus  canadensis)    (COFFEE 
NUT).    Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  stiff,  of  coarse 
texture,  durable,  the  sapwood  yellow,  the  heartwood  red- 
dish brown;  shrinks  and  checks  considerably  in  drying; 
works  and  stands  well,  and  takes  a  good  polish.     It  is 
used  to  a  limited  extent  in  cabinet  work.    A  medium  to 
large-sized  tree;  not  common.    Pennsylvania  to  Minne- 
sota and  Arkansas. 

COTTONWOOD.  (See  POPLAR.) 
CUCUMBER  TREE.  (See  TULIP.) 

ELM. — Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  very  tough;  moder- 
ately durable  in  contact  with  the  soil;  commonly 
cross-grained,  difficult  to  split  and  shape,  warps  and 
checks  considerably  in  drying,  but  stands  well  if 
properly  handled.  The  broad  sapwood  whitish,  heart- 
wood  brown,  both  with  shades  of  gray  and  red;  on 
split  surfaces  rough,  texture  coarse  to  fine,  capable 
of  high  polish.  Elm  for  years  has  been  the  principal 
wood  used  in  slack  cooperage,  for  staves  and  hoops. 
Also  used  in  the  construction  of  cars,  wagons,  etc. ;  in 
boat  and  shipbuilding;  for  agricultural  implements 
and  machinery;  in  saddlery  and  harness  work,  and 
particularly  in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  fur- 
niture, where  the  beautiful  figures,  especially  those 
of  the  tangential  or  bastard  section,  are  just  begin- 
ning to  be  duly  appreciated.  The  elms  are  medium 
to  large-sized  trees,  of  fairly  rapid  growth,  with 
stout  trunk,  form  no  forests  of  pure  growth,  but  are 


TIMBER  37 

found  scattered  in  all  the  broad-leaved  woods  of  our 
country,  sometimes  forming  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  arborescent  growth. 

24.  WHITE  ELM  (Ulmus  Americana)  (AMERICAN  ELM, 
WATEK   ELM).     Medium   to   large-sized   tree,   common. 
Maine  to  Minnesota,  southward  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

25.  EOCK  ELM  (Ulmus  racemosa)  (CoKK  ELM,  HICKORY 
ELM,  WHITE  ELM,  CLIFF  ELM).    Medium  to  large-sized 
tree.    Michigan,  Ohio,  from  Vermont  to  Iowa,  southward 
to  Kentucky. 

26.  RED  ELM   (Ulmus  fulva)    (SLIPPERY  ELM,  MOOSE 
ELM).    The  red  or  slippery  elm  is  not  so  large  a  tree  as 
the  white  elm,  though  it  occasionally  attains  a  height  of 
135  feet  and  a  diameter  of  4  feet.     It  grows  tall  and 
straight,  and  thrives  in  river  valleys.    The  wood  is  heavy, 
hard,  elastic,  strong,  moderately  durable  in  contact  with 
the  soil,  splits  easily  when  green,  works  fairly  well,  and 
stands  well,  if  properly  seasoned.    Careful  seasoning  and 
handling  are  essential  for  the  best  results.     Trees  can 
be  utilized  for  posts  when  very  small.    When  green  the 
wood  rots  very  quickly  in  contact  with  the  ground.    Poles 
for  posts  should  be  cut  in  summer  and  peeled  and  dried 
before  setting.    The  wood  becomes  very  tough  and  pliable 
when  steamed,  and  is  of  value  for  sleigh  runners  and  for 
ribs  of  canoes  and  skiffs.    Together  with  white  elm  it  is 
extensively  used  for  staves  and.  hoops  in  slack  cooperage, 
and  also  for  furniture.     The  thick,  viscous  inner  bark, 
which  gives  the  tree  its  descriptive  name,  is  quite  palat- 
able,   slightly   nutritious,   and  has   a   medicinal   value. 
Found  chiefly  along  water  courses.    New  York  to  Minne- 
sota, and  southward  to  Florida  and  Texas. 

27.  CEDAR  ELM  (Ulmus  crassifolia).    Small-sized  tree, 
quite  common.    Arkansas  and  Texas. 


38  COOPEEAGE 

28.  WINGED  ELM  (Ulmus  alata)  (WAHOO).  Small- 
sized  tree,  locally  quite  common.  Arkansas,  Missouri 
and  Eastern  Virginia. 

GUM. — This  general  term  applies  to  three  important 
species  of  gum  in  the  South,  the  principal  one  usually 
being  distinguished  as  "red"  or  "sweet"  gum  (see 
Fig.  50) ;  the  next  in  importance  being  the  "tupelo" 
or  "bay  poplar"  (see  Fig.  54) ;  and  the  least  of  the 
trio  is  designated  as  "black"  or  "sour"  gum.  Up 
to  the  year  1900  little  was  known  of  gum  as  a  wood 
for  cooperage  purposes,  but  by  the  continued  ad- 
vance in  price  of  the  woods  used,  a  few  of  the  manu- 
facturers, looking  into  the  future,  saw  that  the  sup- 
ply of  the  various  woods  in  use  was  limited,  that 
new  woods  would  have  to  be  sought,  and  gum  was 
looked  upon  as  a  possible  substitute,  owing  to  its 
cheapness  and  abundant  supply.  No  doubt  in  the 
future  this  wood  will  be  used  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent in  the  manufacture  of  both  tight  and  slack  coo- 
perage. At  present  gum  is  used  quite  extensively 
and  with  varied  results  in  slack  packages,  principally 
sugar,  salt,  etc.,  and  recently  has  been  experimented 
upon  for  tight  cooperage,  principally  for  oil  and 
syrup  packages.  In  the  manufacture  of  gum,  unless 
the  knives  and  saws  are  kept  very  sharp,  the  wood 
will  break  out,  the  corners  having  a  tendency  to  split 
off;  and  also  much  difficulty  has  been  experienced 
in  seasoning  and  kiln-drying. 

In  the  past,  gum,  having  no  marketable  value,  has 
been  left  standing  after  logging  operations,  or, 
where  the  land  has  been  cleared  for  farming,  has 
been  girdled  and  allowed  to  rot,  and  then  felled  and 
burned  as  trash.  Now,  however,  that  there  is  a  mar- 


TIMBER  39 

ket  for  the  timber,  it  will  be  profitable  to  cut  the 
gum  with  the  other  hardwoods,  and  as  this  species 
of  wood  is  coming  in  for  a  greater  share  of  attention 
than  ever  before  in  the  cooperage  world,  it  is  well 
to  make  some  special  points  of  study  in  regard  to 
manufacturing  it.  Most  of  the  study  of  gum  here- 
tofore has  been  concentrated  on  the  one  subject  of 
drying,  which  requires  its  share  of  attention  too, 
but  at  the  same  time  there  is  not  a  point  anywhere 
in  the  process  of  its  manufacture,  from  the  tree  to 
the  finished  product,  but  that  will  furnish  oppor- 
tunity for  much  study  and  experiment. 

29.  BED  GUM  (Liquidamber  styraciflua)  (SWEET  GUM, 
LIQUIDAMBEK,  BiLSTEo).  The  wood  is  about  as  stiff  and 
as  strong  as  chestnut,  rather  heavy,  it  splits  easily  and 
is  quite  brash,  commonly  cross-grained,  of  fine  texture, 
and  has  a  large  proportion  of  whitish  sapwood,  which 
decays  rapidly  when  exposed  to  the  weather;  but  the 
reddish-brown  heartwood  is  quite  durable,  even  in  the 
ground.  The  green  wood  contains  much  water,  and  con- 
sequently is  heavy  and  difficult  to  float,  but  when  dry  it 
is  as  light  as  basswood.  The  great  amount  of  water  in 
the  green  wood,  particularly  in  the  sap,  makes  it  difficult 
to  season  by  ordinary  methods  without  warping  and 
twisting.  This  fault  can  be  overcome,  however,  by  care 
and  special  treatment.  It  does  not  check  badly,  is  taste- 
less and  odorless,  and  when  once  seasoned  swells  and 
shrinks  but  little,  unless  exposed  to  the  weather. 

RANGE  OF  RED  GUM 

Bed  gum  is  distributed  from  Fairfield  County,  Conn., 
to  Southeastern  Missouri,  through  Arkansas  and  the 
Indian  Territory  to  the  valley  of  the  Trinity  Biver  in 


40  COOPEEAGE 

Texas,  and  eastward  to  the  Atlantic  Coast.  Its  commer- 
cial range  is  restricted,  however,  to  the  moist  lands  of 
the  lower  Ohio  and  Mississippi  basins  and  of  the  south- 
eastern coast.  It  is  one  of  the  commonest  timber  trees 
in  the  hardwood  bottoms  and  drier  swamps  of  the  South. 
It  grows  in  mixture  with  ash,  cottonwood  and  oak.  (See 
Fig.  52.)  It  is  found  also  to  a  considerable  extent  on  the 
lower  ridges  and  slopes  of  the  southern  Appalachians, 
but  there  it  does  not  reach  merchantable  value  and  is  of 
little  importance.  Considerable  difference  is  found  be- 
tween the  growth  in  the  upper  Mississippi  bottoms  and 
that  along  the  rivers  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  and  on  the 
Gulf.  In  the  latter  regions  the  bottoms  are  lower,  and 
consequently  more  subject  to  floods  and  to  continued 
overflows.  (See  Fig.  54.)  The  alluvial  deposit  is  also 
greater,  and  the  trees  grow  considerably  faster.  Trees  of 
the  same  diameter  show  a  larger  percentage  of  sapwood 
there  than  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley. The  Mississippi  Valley  hardwood  trees  are  for  the 
most  part  considerably  older,  and  reach  larger  dimen- 
sions than  the  timber  along  the  coast. 

FOEM  OF  THE  BED   GUM 

In  the  best  situations  red  gum  reaches  a  height  of  150 
feet,  and  a  diameter  of  five  feet.  These-  dimensions,  how- 
ever, are  unusual.  The  stem  is  straight  and  cylindrical, 
with  dark,  deeply  furrowed  bark,  and  branches  often 
winged  with  corky  ridges.  In  youth,  while  growing  vig- 
orously under  normal  conditions,  it  assumes  a  long,  regu- 
lar, conical  crown,  much  resembling  the  form  of  a  conifer. 
(See  Fig.  52.)  After  the  tree  has  attained  its  height 
growth,  however,  the  crown  becomes  rounded,  spreading, 
and  rather  ovate  in  shape.  When  growing  in  the  forest 
the  tree  prunes  itself  readily  at  an  early  period,  and 


TIMBER  41 

forms  a  good  length  of  clear  stem,  but  it  branches 
strongly  after  making  most  of  its  height  growth.  The 
mature  tree  is  usually  forked,  and  the  place  where  the 
forking  commences  determines  the  number  of  logs  in  the 
tree  or  its  merchantable  length,  by  preventing  cutting 
to  a  small  diameter  in  the  top.  On  large  trees  the  stem 
is  often  not  less  than  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  where 
the  branching  begins.  The  over-mature  tree  is  usually 
broken  and  dry-topped,  with  a  very  spreading  crown,  in 
consequence  of  new  branches  being  sent  out. 

TOLEKANCE  OF  EED  GUM 

Throughout  its  entire  life  red  gum  is  tolerant  in  shade, 
there  are  practically  no  red  gum  seedlings  under  the 
dense  forest  cover  of  the  bottom  land,  and  while  a  good 
many  may  come  up  under  the  pine  forest  on  the  drier 
uplands,  they  seldom  develop  into  large  trees.  As  a  rule 
seedlings  appear  only  in  clearings  or  in  open  spots  in  the 
forest.  It  is  seldom  that  an  overtopped  tree  is  found, 
for  the  gum  dies  quickly  if  suppressed,  and  is  conse- 
quently nearly  always  a  dominant  or  intermediate  tree. 
In  a  hardwood  bottom  forest  the  timber  trees  are  all  of 
nearly  the  same  age  over  considerable  areas,  and  there 
is  little  young  growth  to  be  found  in  the  older  stands. 
The  reason  for  this  is  the  intolerance  of  most  of  the 
swamp  species.*  A  scale  of  tolerance  containing  the  im- 
portant species,  and  beginning  with  the  most  light  de- 
manding, would  run  as  follows:  Cottonwood,  sycamore, 
red  gum,  white  elm,  red  oak,  white  ash  and  red  maple. 

DEMANDS  UPON   SOIL  AND   MOISTUKE 

While  the  red  gum  grows  in  various  situations,  it  pre- 
fers the  deep,  rich  soil  of  the  hardwood  bottoms,  and 
there  reaches  its  best  development.  (See  Fig.  50.)  It 


42  COOPERAGE 

requires  considerable  soil  moisture,  though  it  does  not 
grow  in  the  wetter  swamps,  and  does,  not  thrive  on  dry 
pine  land.  Seedlings,  however,  are  often  found  in  large 
numbers  on  the  edges  of  the  uplands  and  even  on  the 
sandy  pine  land,  but  they  seldom  live  beyond  the  pole 
stage.  When  they  do,  they  form  small,  scrubby  trees  that 
are  of  little  value.  Where  the  soil  is  dry  the  tree  has  a 
long  tap-root.  In  the  swamps,  where  the  roots, can  obtain 
water  easily,  the  development  of  the  tap-root  is  poor, 
and  it  is  only  moderate  on  the  glade  bottom  lands,  where 
there  is  considerable  moisture  throughout  the  year,  but 
no  standing  water  in  the  summer  months. 

REPRODUCTION    OF   RED    GUM 

Bed  gum  reproduces  both  by  seed  and  by  sprouts.  (See 
Fig.  52.)  It  produces  seed  fairly  abundantly  every  year, 
but  about  once  in  three  years  there  is  an  extremely  heavy 
production.  The  tree  begins  to  bear,  seed  when  twenty- 
five  to  thirty  years  old,  and  seeds  vigorously  up  to  an 
age  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  when  its  productive 
power  begins  to  diminish.  A  great  part  of  the  seed,  how- 
ever, is  abortive.  Bed  gum  is  not  fastidious  in  regard  to 
its  germinating  bed;  it  comes  up  readily  on  sod  in  old 
fields  and  meadows,  on  decomposing  homus  in  the  forest, 
or  on  bare  clay-loam  or  loamy  sand  soil.  It  requires  a 
considerable  degree  of  light,  however,  and  prefers  a 
moist  seed  bed.  The  natural  distribution  of  the  seed 
takes  place  for  several  hundred  feet  from  the  seed  trees, 
the  dissemination  depending  almost  entirely  on  the  wind. 
A  great  part  of  the  seed  falls  on  the  hardwood  bottoms 
when  the  land  is  flooded,  and  is  either  washed  away  or, 
if  already  in  the  ground  and  germinating,  is  destroyed 
by  the  long  continued  overflow.  After  germination,  the 
red  gum  seedling  demands,  above  everything  else,  abun- 
dant light  for  its  survival  and  development.  It  is  for 


TIMBER  43 

this  reason  that  there  is  very  little  young  growth  of  red 
gum,  either  in  the  unculled  forest  or  on  culled  lands, 
where,  as  is  usually  the  case,  a  dense  undergrowth  of 
cane,  briers,  and  rattan  is  present.  Under  the  dense 
underbrush  of  cane  and  briers  throughout  much  of  the 
virgin  forest,  reproduction  of  any  of  the  merchantable 
species  is  of  course  impossible.  And  even  where  the 
land  has  been  logged  over,  the  forest  is  seldom  open 
enough  to  allow  reproduction  of  cottonwood  and  red  gum. 
Where,  however,  seed  trees  are  contiguous  to  pastures 
or  cleared  land,  scattered  seedlings  are  found  springing 
up  in  the  open,  and  where  openings  occur  in  the  forest, 
there  are  often  large  numbers  of  red  gum  seedlings,  the 
reproduction  generally  occurring  in  groups.  But  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  Southern  hardwood  bottom  land 
forest  reproduction  is  extremely  scanty.  The  growth  of 
red  gum  during  the  early  part  of  its  life,  and  up  to  the 
time  it  reaches  a  diameter  of  eight  inches  breast-high,  is 
extremely  rapid,  and,  like  most  of  the  intolerant  species, 
it  attains  its  height  growth  at  an  early  period.  Gum 
sprouts  readily  from  the  stump,  and  the  sprouts  surpass 
the  seedlings  in  rate  of  height  growth  for  the  first  few 
years,  but  they  seldom  form  large  timber  trees.  The 
capacity  to  sprout  when  cut  is  confined  to  the  younger 
trees.  Those  over  fifty  years  of  age  seldom  sprout.  For 
this  reason  sprout  reproduction  is  of  little  importance 
in  the  forest.  The  principal  requirements  of  red  gum, 
then,  are  a  moist,  fairly  rich  soil  and  good  exposure  to 
light.  Without  these  it  will  not  reach  its  best  develop- 
ment. 

SECOND   GROWTH 

Second-growth  red  gum  occurs  to  any  considerable  ex- 
tent only  on  land  which  has  been  thoroughly  cleared. 
Throughout  the  South  there  is  a.  great  deal  of  land  which 
was  in  cultivation  before  the  war,  but  which  during  the 


44  COOPERAGE 

subsequent  period  of  industrial  depression  was  aban- 
doned and  allowed  to  revert  to  forest.  These  old  fields  are 
now  mostly  covered  with  second- growth  forest,  of  which 
red  gum  forms  an  important  part.  (Fig.  52.)  Frequently 
over  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  stand  consists  of  this  species, 
but  more  often,  and  especially  on  the  Atlantic  Coast,  the 
greater  part  is  of  cottonwood  or  ash.  These  stands  are 
very  dense,  and  the  growth  is  extremely  rapid.  Small 
stands  of  young  growth  are  also  often  found  along  the 
edges  of  cultivated  fields.  In  the  Mississippi  Valley  the 
abandoned  fields  on  which  young  stands  have  sprung  up 
are  for  the  most  part  being  rapidly  cleared  again.  The 
second  growth  here  is  considered  of  little  value  in  com- 
parison with  the  value  of  the  land  for  agricultural  pur- 
poses. In  many  cases,  however,  the  farm  value  of  the 
land  is  not  at  present  sufficient  to  make  it  profitable  to 
clear  it,  unless  the  timber  cut  will  at  least  pay  for  the 
operation.  There  is  considerable  land  upon  which  the 
second  growth  will  become  valuable  timber  within  a  few 
years.  Such  land  should  not  be  cleared  until  it  is  possible 
to  utilize  the  timber. 

30.  TUPELO  GUM  (Nyssa  aquatica)  (BAY  POPLAR,  COT- 
TON GUM).  The  close  similarity  which  exists  between 
red  and  tupelo  gum,  together  with  the  fact  that  tupelo 
is  often  cut  along  with  red  gum,  and  marketed  with  the 
sapwood  of  the  latter,  makes  it  not  out  of  place  to  give 
consideration  to  this  timber.  The  wood  has  a  fine,  uni- 
form texture,  is  moderately  hard  and  strong,  is  stiff,  not 
elastic,  very  tough  and  hard  to  split,  but  easy  to  work 
with  tools.  Tupelo  takes  glue,  paint,  or  varnish  well, 
and  absorbs  very  little  of  the  material.  In  this  respect 
it  is  equal  to  yellow  poplar  and  superior  to  cottonwood. 
The  wood  is  not  durable  in  contact  with  the  ground,  and 
requires  much  care  in  seasoning.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  heartwood  and  sapwood  of  this  species  is 


TIMBER  45 

marked.  The  former  varies  in  color  from  a  dull  gray  to 
a  dull  brown;  the  latter  is  whitish  or  light  yellow,  like 
that  of  poplar.  The  wood  is  of  medium  weight,  about 
thirty-two  pounds  per  cubic  foot  when  dry,  or  nearly  that 
of  red  gum  and  loblolly  pine.  After  seasoning  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  distinguish  the  better  grades  of  the  sapwood 
from  poplar.  Owing  to  the  prejudice  against  tupelo  gum, 
it  was  until  recently  marketed  under  such  names  as  bay 
poplar,  swamp  poplar,  nyssa,  cotton  gum,  Circassian  wal- 
nut and  hazel  pine.  Since  it  has  become  evident  that  the 
properties  of  the  wood  fit  it  for  many  uses,  the  demand 
for  tupelo  has  largely  increased,  and  it  is  now  taking 
rank  with  other  standard  woods  under  its  rightful  name. 
Heretofore  the  quality  and  usefulness  of  this  wood  were 
greatly  underestimated,  and  the  difficulty  of  handling  it 
was  magnified.  Poor  success  in  seasoning  and  kiln-dry- 
ing was  laid  to  defects  of  the  wood  itself,  when,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  the  failures  were  largely  due  to  the  ab- 
sence of  proper  methods  in  handling.  The  passing  of 
this  prejudice  against  tupelo  is  due  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  characteristics  and  uses  of  the  wood. 
Handled  in  the  way  in  which  its  particular  character 
demands  tupelo  is  a  wood  of  value. 

USES  OF  THE  WOOD 

Tupelo  is  now  used  in  the  manufacture  of  slack  coop- 
erage, principally  for  heading.  Is  used  extensively  for 
house  flooring  and  inside  finishing,  such  as  mouldings, 
door  jams,  and  casings.  A  great  deal  is  now  shipped  to 
European  countries,  where  it  is  highly  valued  for  dif- 
ferent classes  of  manufacture.  Much  of  the  wood  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  boxes,  since  it  works  well  upon 
rotary  veneer  machines.  There  is  also  an  increasing 
demand  for  tupelo  for  laths,  wooden  pumps,  violin  and 
organ  sounding  boards,  coffins,  mantel  work,  conduits 


46  COOPERAGE 

and  novelties.    It  is  also  used  in  the  furniture  trade  for 
backing,  drawers  and  panels. 

KANGE    OF    TUPELO   GUM 

Tupelo  occurs  throughout  the  coastal  region  of  the 
Atlantic  States  from  Southern  Virginia  to  Northern  Flor- 
ida, through  the  Gulf  States  to  the  valley  of  the  Nueces 
River  in  Texas,  through  Arkansas  and  Southern  Missouri 
to  Western  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  to  the  valley 
of  the  lower  Wabash  River.  Tupelo  is  being  extensively 
milled  at  present  only  in  the  region  adjacent  to  Mobile, 
Ala.,  and  in  Southern  and  Central  Louisiana,  where  it 
occurs  in  large  merchantable  quantities,  attaining  its  best 
development  in  the  former  locality.  The  country  in  this 
locality  is  very  swampy  (see  Fig.  54),  and  within  a  radius 
of  one  hundred  miles  tupelo  gum  is  one  of  the  principal 
timber  trees.  It  grows  only  in  the  swamps  and  wetter 
situations  (see  Fig.  54),  often  in  mixture  with  cypress, 
and  in  the  rainy  season  it  stands  in  from  two  to  twenty 
feet  of  water. 

31.  BLACK  GUM  (Nyssa  sylvatica)  (SouR  GUM).  Black 
gum  is  not  cut  to  much  extent,  owing  to  its  less  abundant 
supply  and  poorer  quality,  but  is  used  for  repair  work 
on  wagons,  for  cattle  yokes,  and  for  other  purposes 
which  require  a  strong  non-splitting  wood.  It  is  dis- 
tributed from  Maine  to  Southern  Ontario,  through  Cen- 
tral Michigan  to  Southeastern  Missouri,  southward  to  the 
valley  of  the  Brazos  River  in  Texas,  and  eastward  to  the 
Kissimmee  River  and  Tampa  Bay  in  Florida.  It  is  found 
in  the  swamps  and  hardwood  bottoms,  but  is  more  abun- 
dant and  of  better  size  on  the  slightly  higher  ridges  and 
hummocks  in  these  swamps,  and  on  the  mountain  slopes 
in  the  southern  Allegheny  region.  Though  its  range  is 
greater  than  that  of  either  the  red  or  tupelo  gum,  it  no- 
where forms  an  important  part  of  the  forest. 


TIMBER  47 

HACKBERRY. 

32.  HACKBEKKY    (Celtis   occidentalis)    (SUGAK  BERRY). 
The  wood  handsome,  heavy,  hard,  strong,  quite  tough, 
of  moderately  fine  texture,  and  greenish  or  yellowish 
white  color;  shrinks  moderately,  works  well  and  stands 
well,  and  takes  a  good  polish.    Used  to  some  extent  in 
slack  cooperage,  but  little  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
furniture.    Medium  to  large-sized  tree,  locally  quite  com- 
mon, largest  in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley.    Occurs  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  Eastern  United  States. 

HICKORY. — Wood  very  heavy,  hard  and' strong,  prover- 
fyially  tough,  of  rather  coarse  texture,  smooth  and  of 
straight  grain.  The  broad  sapwood  white,  the  heart- 
wood  reddish  nut  brown.  It  dries  slowly,  shrinks 
and  checks  considerably;  is  not  durable  in  the 
ground,  or  if  exposed;  and,  especially  the  sapwood, 
is  always  subject  to  the  inroads  of  boring  insects. 
Hickory  excels  as  carriage  and  wagon  stock,  but  is 
also  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  imple- 
ments and  machinery,  for  tool  handles,  timber  pins, 
for  harness  work,  dowel  pins  and  hoops  in  cooper- 
age. The  hickories  are  tall  trees  with  slender  stems, 
never  form  forests,  occasionally  small  groves,  but 
usually  occur  scattered  among  other  broad-leaved 
trees  in  suitable  localities.  The  following  species 
all  contribute  more  or  less  to  the  hickory  of  the 
market. 

33.  SHAGBARK  HICKORY    (Hicoria  ovata)    (SHELLBARK 
HICKORY).    A  medium  to  large-sized  tree,  quite  common; 
the  favorite  among  hickories ;  best  developed  in  the  Ohio 
and  Mississippi  basins;  from  Lake  Ontario  to  Texas, 
Minnesota  to  Florida. 

34.  MOCKERNUT  HICKORY  (Hicoria  alba)  (BLACK  HICK- 
ORY, BULL  AND  BLACK  NUT,  BIG  BUD,  AND  WHITE-HEART 


48  COOPERAGE 

HICKOKY).    A  medium  to  large-sized  tree,  with  the  same 
range  as  the  foregoing ;  common,  especially  in  the  South. 

35.  PIGNUT  HICKORY  (Hicoria  glabra)   (BROWN  HICK- 
ORY, BLACK  HICKORY,  SWITCH-BUD  HICKORY).    Medium  to 
large-sized  tree,  abundant,  all  Eastern  United  States. 

36.  BITTERNUT    HICKORY    (Hicoria    minima)    ( SWAMP 
HICKORY).    A  medium-sized  tree,  favoring  wet  localities, 
with  the  same  range  as  the  preceding. 

37.  PECAN  (Hicoria  pecan)   (ILLINOIS  NUT).    A  large 
tree,  very  common  in  the  fertile  bottoms  of  the  Western 
streams.    Indiana  to  Nebraska  and  southward  to  Louisi- 
ana and  Texas.  . 

HOLLY. 

38.  HOLLY    (Ilex  opaca).     Wood  of  medium  weight, 
hard,  strong,  tough,  (*£  fine  texture  and  white  color; 
works  well  and  stands  well,  used  for  cabinet  work  and 
turnery.     A  small  tree.     Most  abundant  in  the  lower 
Mississippi  Valley  and  Gulf  States,  but  occurring  east- 
ward to  Massachusetts  and  north  to  Indiana. 

HORSE-CHESTNUT.    (See  BUCKEYE.) 
IRONWOOD.   (See  BLUE  BEECH.) 

LOCUST. — This  name  applies  to  both  of  the  following: 

39.  BLACK  LOCUST  (Robinia  pseudacacia)   (BLACK  LO- 
CUST, YELLOW  LOCUST).    Wood  very  heavy,  hard,  strong, 
and  tough,  of  coarse  texture,  very  durable  in  contact 
with  the  soil,  shrinks  considerably  and  suffers  in  sea- 
soning; the  very  narrow  sapwood  yellowish,  the  heart- 
wood  brown,  with  shades  of  red  and  green.    Used  for 
wagon  hubs,  tree  nails  or  pins,  but  especially  for  ties, 
posts,  etc.     Abroad  it  is  much  used  for  furniture  and 
farming  implements  and  also  in  turnery.    Small  to  me- 


TIMBER  .  49 

dium- sized  tree.    At  home  in  the  Alleghanies,  extensively 
planted,  especially  in  the  West. 

40.  HONEY  LOCUST  (Gleditschia  triacanthos)  (BLACK 
LOCUST,  SWEET  LOCUST,  THKEE-THOBNED  ACACIA).  Wood 
heavy,  hard,  strong,  tough,  of  coarse  texture,  susceptible 
of  a  good  polish,  the  narrow  sapwood  yellow,  the  heart- 
wood  brownish  red.  So  far,  but  little  appreciated  except 
for  fences  and  fuel ;  used  to  some  extent  for  wagon  hubs 
and  in  rough  construction.  A  medium-sized  tree.  Found 
from  Pennsylvania  to  Nebraska,  and  southward  to  Flor- 
ida and  Texas;  locally  quite  abundant. 

MAGNOLIA.    (See  TULIP.) 

MAPLE.! — Wood  heavy,  hard,  strong,  stiff,  and  tough,  of 
fine  texture,  frequently  wavy-grained,  this  giving 
rise  to  " curly "  and  " blister "  figures;  not  durable 
in  the  ground,  or  when  otherwise  exposed.  Maple 
is  creamy  white,  with  shades  of  light  brown  in  the 
heart,  shrinks  moderately,  seasons,  works  and  stands 
well,  wears  smoothly,  and  takes  a  fine  polish.  The 
wood  is  used  in  slack  cooperage,  and  for  ceiling, 
flooring,  panelling,  stairway,  and  other  finishing 
lumber  in  house,  ship  and  car  construction.  It  is 
used  for  the  keel  of  boats  and  ships,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  implements  and  machinery,  but  especially 
for  furniture,  where  entire  chamber  sets  of  maple 
rival  those  of  oak.  Maple  is  also  used  for  shoe  lasts 
and  other  form  blocks;  for  shoe  pegs;  for  piano 
actions,  school  apparatus;  for  wood  type  in  show 
bill  printing,  tool  handles ;  in  wood  carving,  turnery, 
and  scroll  work,  and  is  one  of  our  most  useful  woods. 
The  maples  are  medium-sized  trees,  of  fairly  rapid 
growth ;  sometimes  form  forests,  and  frequently  con- 
stitute a  large  proportion  of  the  arborescent  growth. 


50  COOPERAGE 

41.  SUGAR   MAPLE    (Acer  saccharum)    (HAKD   MAPLE, 
KOCK  MAPLE).    Medium  to  large-sized  tree,  very  common, 
forms  considerable  forests.    Maine  to  Minnesota,  abun- 
dant, with  birch,  in  parts  of  the  pineries,  southward  to 
Northern  Florida;  most  abundant  in  the  region  of  the 
Great  Lakes. 

42.  BED  MAPLE  (Acer  rubrum)  ( SWAMP  MAPLE,  WATER 
MAPLE).     Medium-sized  tree.     Like  the  preceding,  but 
scattered  along  watercourses  and  other  moist  localities. 

43.  SILVEE  MAPLE  (Acer  saccharinum)    (SOFT  MAPLE, 
SILVER    MAPLE).      Medium-sized    tree,    common;    wood 
lighter,  softer,  inferior  to  hard  maple,  and  usually  offered 
in  small  quantities  and  held  separate  in  the  markets. 
Valley  of  the  Ohio,  but  occurs  from  Maine  to  Dakota  and 
southward  to  Florida. 

44.  BROAD-LEAVED  MAPLE  (Acer  macro phyllum).    Me- 
dium-sized tree,  forms  considerable  forests,  and,  like  the 
preceding,  has  a  lighter,  softer,  and  less  valuable  wood. 
Pacific  Coast  regions. 

MULBERRY. 

45.  BED  MULBERRY  (Morns  rubra).    Wood  moderately 
heavy,  hard,  strong,  rather  tough,  of  coarse  texture,  dur- 
able; the  sapwood  whitish,  heartwood  yellow  to  orange 
brown ;  shrinks  and  checks  considerably  in  drying ;  works 
well  and  stands  well.   Used  in  cooperage  and  locally  in 
shipbuilding  and  in  the  manufacture  of  farm  implements. 
A  small-sized  tree.  Common  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
valleys,  but  widely  distributed  in  the  Eastern  United 
States. 

OAK. — Wood  very  variable,  usually  very  heavy  and  hard, 
very  strong  and  tough,  porous,  and  of  coarse  texture ; 
the  sapwood  whitish,  the  heartwood  "oak"  brown 


TIMBER  51 

to  reddish  brown.    It  shrinks  and  checks  badly,  giv- 
ing trouble  in  seasoning,  but  stands  well,  is  durable, 
and  little  subject  to  the  attack  of  insects.     Oak  is 
used  for  many  purposes,  and  is  the  chief  wood  used 
for  tight  cooperage ;  was  also  used  quite  extensively 
in  former  years  for  slack  cooperage,  but  on  account 
of  its  increased  value   had  to   be   abandoned  for 
cheaper  woods.    It  is  used  in  shipbuilding,  for  heavy 
construction,   in   carpentry,   in  furniture,   car   and 
wagon  work,  turnery,  and  even  in  wood  carving; 
also  in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  farm  im- 
plements,  wooden   mill   machinery;   for   piles   and 
wharves,  railway  ties,  etc.    The  oaks  are  medium  to 
large-sized  trees,  forming  the  predominant  part  of 
a  large  portion  of  our  broad-leaved  forests,  so  that 
these  are  generally  termed  "oak  forests,"  though 
they  always  contain  a  considerable  proportion  of 
other  kinds  of  trees.     Three  well-marked  kinds — 
white,  red,  and  live  oak — are  distinguished  and  kept 
separate  in  the  market.    Of  the  two  principal  kinds 
"white  oak"  is  the  stronger,  tougher,  less  porous, 
and  more  durable.    "Bed  oak"  is  usually  of  coarser 
texture,  more  porous,  often  brittle,  less  durable,  and 
even  more  troublesome  in  seasoning  than  white  oak. 
In  carpentry  and  furniture  work  red  oak  brings 
about  the  same  price  at  present  as  white  oak.    The 
red  oaks  everywhere  accompany  the  white  oaks,  and, 
like  the  latter,  are  usually  represented  by  several 
species  in  any  given  locality.     "Live  oak,"  once 
largely  employed  in  shipbuilding,  possesses  all  the 
good  qualities   (except  that  of  size)   of  white  oak, 
even  to  a  greater  degree.    It  is  one  of  the  heaviest, 
hardest,  toughest,  and  most  durable  woods  of  this 
country;  in  structure  it  resembles  the  red  oaks,  but 
is  much  less  porous. 


52  COOPEEAGE 

46.  WHITE  OAK    (Quercus  alba).     Medium  to  large- 
sized  tree.     Common  in  the  Eastern  States,  Ohio  and 
Mississippi  valleys;  occurs  throughout  Eastern  United 
States. 

47.  BUE  OAK  (Quercus  macrocarpa)  (Mossy-Cup  OAK, 
OvEK-Cup  OAK).    Large-sized  tree,  locally  abundant,  com- 
mon.   Bottoms  west  of  Mississippi;  range  farther  west 
than  the  preceding. 

48.  SWAMP  WHITE  OAK  (Quercus  bicolor).    Large-sized 
tree,  common.     Most  abundant  in  the  Lake  States,  but 
with  a  range  as  in  white  oak. 

49.  YELLOW  OAK  (Quercus  prinoides)  (CHESTNUT  OAK, 
CHINQUAPIN  OAK).    Medium-sized  tree.    Southern  Alle- 
ghanies,  eastward  to  Massachusetts. 

50.  BASKET    OAK    (Quercus    michauxii)    (Cow    OAK). 
Large-sized  tree.     Locally  abundant;  lower  Mississippi 
and  eastward  to  Delaware. 

51.  OVEK-CUP  OAK   (Quercus  lyrata)    (SWAMP  WHITE 
OAK,  SWAMP  POST  OAK).     Medium  to  large- sized  tree, 
rather  restricted;  ranges  as  in  the  preceding. 

52.  POST  OAK  (Quercus  obtiisiloba)  (!KON  OAK).    Me- 
dium to  large-sized  tree.    Arkansas  to  Texas,  eastward 
to  New  England  and  northward  to  Michigan. 

53.  WHITE  OAK  (Quercus  durandii).    Medium  to  small- 
sized  tree.    Texas,  eastward  to  Alabama. 

54.  WHITE  OAK  (Quercus  gar  ry  ana).  Medium  to  large- 
sized  tree.    Washington  to  California. 

55.  WHITE  OAK  (Quercus  lobata).    Medium  to  large- 
sized  tree.    Largest  oak  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  California. 

56.  EED  OAK  (Quercus  rubra)  (  BLACK  OAK).    Medium 
to  large-sized  tree;  common  in  all  parts  of  its  range. 
Maine  to  Minnesota,  and  southward  to  the  Gulf. 

57.  BLACK   OAK    (Quercus  tinctoria)    (YELLOW  OAK). 


TIMBER  53 

Medium  to  large-sized  tree.  Very  common  in  the  South- 
ern States,  but  occurring  north  as  far  as  Minnesota,  and 
eastward  to  Maine. 

58.  SPANISH  OAK  (Quercus  falcata)   (RED  OAK).    Me- 
dium-sized tree.    Common  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf 
region,  but  found  from  Texas  to  New  York,  and  north  to 
Missouri  and  Kentucky. 

59.  SCARLET  OAK  (Quercus  coccinea).  Medium  to  large- 
sized  tree.    Best  developed  in  the  lower  basin  of  the  Ohio, 
but  found  from  Maine  to  Missouri,  and  from  Minnesota 
to  Florida. 

60.  PIN   OAK    (Quercus   palustris)    (SWAMP   SPANISH 
OAK,  WATEK  OAK).    Medium  to  large-sized  tree,  common 
along  borders  of  streams  and  swamps.     Arkansas  to 
Wisconsin,  and  eastward  to  the  Alleghanies. 

61.  WILLOW    OAK    (Quercus    phellos)    (PEACH    OAK). 
Small  to  medium-sized  tree.    New  York  to  Texas,  and 
northward  to  Kentucky. 

62.  WATER  OAK  (Quercus  aquatica)   (DucK  OAK,  POS- 
SUM OAK,  PUNK  OAK).     Medium  to  large-sized  tree,  of 
extremely  rapid  growth.    Eastern  Gulf  States,  eastward 
to  Delaware,  and  northward  to  Missouri  and  Kentucky. 

63.  LIVE    OAK    (Quercus    rirens).      Small-sized    tree. 
Scattered  along  the  coast  from  Virginia  to  Texas. 

64.  LIVE  OAK  (Quercus  chrysolepis)  (MAUL  OAK,  VAL- 
PARAISO OAK).    Medium-sized  tree.     California. 

OSAGE  ORANGE. 

65.  OSAGE  ORANGE  (Madura  aurantiaca)  (Bois  D'ARC). 
Wood  very  heavy,  exceedingly  hard,  strong,  not  tough, 
of  moderately  coarse  texture,  and  very  durable ;  the  sap- 
wood  yellow,  heartwood  brown  on  the  end,  yellow  on 
longitudinal  faces,  soon  turning  grayish  brown  if  ex- 
posed.   It  shrinks  considerably  in  drying,  but  once  dry 


54  COOPERAGE 

it  stands  unusually  well.  Formerly  much  used  for  wheel 
stock,  in  the  dry  regions  of  Texas;  otherwise  employed 
for  posts,  railway  ties,  etc.  Seems  too  little  appreciated ; 
it  is  well  suited  for  turned  ware  and  especially  for  wood 
carving.  A  small-sized  tree,  of  fairly  rapid  growth. 
Scattered  through  the  rich  bottoms  of  Arkansas  and 
Texas. 

PERSIMMON. 

66.  PERSIMMON   (Diospyros  virginiana).     Wood  very 
heavy  and  hard,  strong  and  tough;  resembles  hickory, 
but  is  of  finer  texture;  the  broad  sapwood  cream  color, 
the  heartwood  black ;  used  in  turnery,  for  shuttles,  plane 
stocks,  shoe  lasts,  etc.    Small  to  medium-sized  tree.  Com- 
mon and  best  developed  in  the  lower  Ohio  Valley,  but 
occurs  from  New  York  to  Texas  and  Missouri. 

POPLAR,  (see  also  TULIPWOOD). — Wood  light,  very  soft, 
not  strong,  of  fine  texture  and  whitish,  grayish  to 
yellowish  color,  usually  with  a  satiny  lustre.  The 
wood  shrinks  moderately  (some  cross-grained  forms 
warp  excessively),  but  checks  very  little;  is  easily 
worked,  but  is  not  durable.  Used  in  cooperage,  as 
building  and  furniture  lumber,  for  crates  and  boxes 
(especially  cracker  boxes),  for  woodenware  and 
paper  pulp. 

67.  COTTONWOOD    (Populus   monilifera).     Large-sized 
tree ;  forms  considerable  forests  along  many  of  the  West- 
ern streams,  and  furnishes  most  of  the  cottonwood  of  the 
market.    Mississippi  Valley  and  West;  New  England  to 
the  Eocky  Mountains. 

68.  BALSAM  (Populus  balsamifera)  (BALM  OF  GILEAD). 
Medium  to  large-sized  tree.    Common  all  along  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  the  United  States. 

69.  BLACK  COTTONWOOD   (Populus  trichocarpa).     The 


TIMBER  55 

largest  deciduous  tree  of  Washington;  very  common. 
Northern  Eocky  Mountains  and  Pacific  region. 

70.  COTTONWOOD    (Populus  fremontii  var.   wislizeni). 
Medium  to  large-sized  tree;  common.     Texas  to  Cal- 
ifornia. 

71.  POPLAR   (Populus  grandidentata).     Medium-sized 
tree,  chiefly  used  for  pulp.     Maine  to  Minnesota  and 
southward  along  the  Alleghanies. 

72.  ASPEN  (Populus  tremuloides).    Small  to  medium- 
sized  tree,  often  forming  extensive  forests  and  covering 
burned  areas.     Maine  to  Washington  and  northward, 
south  in  the  western  mountains  to  California  and  New 
Mexico. 

SOUR  GUM.     (See  GUM.) 
RED  GUM.     (See  GUM.) 

SASSAFRAS. 

73.  SASSAFRAS  (Sassafras  sassafras).    Wood  light,  soft, 
not  strong,  brittle,  of  coarse  texture,  durable;  the  sap- 
wood  yellow,  heartwood  orange  brown.    Used  to  some  ex- 
tent in  slack  cooperage,  for  skiffs,  fencing,  etc.  Medium- 
sized  tree,  largest  in  the  lower  Mississippi  Valley.    Oc- 
curs from  New  England  to  Texas  and  from  Michigan  to 
Florida. 

SWEET  GUM.   (See  GUM.) 

SYCAMORE. 

74.  SYCAMORE    (Plat anus  occidentals)    (BUTTON WOOD, 
BUTTON-BALL  TREE,  WATER  BEECH).    Wood  moderately 
heavy,   quite  hard,   stiff,   strong,   tough,  usually  cross- 
grained,  of  coarse  texture,  and  white  to  light  brown  color; 
the  wood  is  hard  to  split  and  work,  shrinks  moderately, 
warps  and  checks  considerably,  but  stands  well.    It  is 
used  in  slack  cooperage,  and  quite  extensively  for  draw- 


56  COOPERAGE 

ers,  backs,  bottoms,  etc.;  in  cabinet  work,  for  tobacco 
boxes,  and  also  for  finishing  lumber,  where  it  has  too  long 
been  underrated.  A  large  tree,  of  rapid  growth.  Com- 
mon and  largest  in  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  valleys,  at 
home  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Eastern  United  States. 

75.  SYCAMOKE   (Platanus  racemosa).     The  California 
species  resembles  in  its  wood  the  Eastern  form. 

76.  TULIP   TKEE    (Liriodendron   tulipifera)    (YELLOW 
POPLAK,  WHITE  WOOD).    Wood  quite  variable  in  weight, 
usually  light,  soft,  stiff  but  not  strong,  of  fine  texture, 
and  yellowish  color;  the  wood  shrinks  considerably,  but 
seasons  without  much  injury ;  works  and  stands  remark- 
ably well.    Used  in  slack  cooperage,  for  siding,  for  pan- 
elling and  finishing  lumber  in  house,  car,  and  shipbuild- 
ing, for  sideboards  and  panels  of  wagons  and  carriages; 
also  in  the  manufacture  of  -furniture,  implements  and 
machinery,  for  pump  logs,  and  almost  every  kind  of  com- 
mon woodenware,  boxes,  shelving,  drawers,  etc.    An  ideal 
wood  for  the  carver  and  toy  man.    A  large  tree,  does  not 
form  forests,  but  is  quite  common,  especially  in  the  Ohio 
basin.    Occurs  from  New  England  to  Missouri  and  south- 
ward to  Florida. 

77.  CUCUMBEK  TKEE    (Magnolia  acuminata).     A  me- 
dium-sized  tree,   most   common  in   the   southern   Alle- 
ghanies,  but  distributed  from  New  York  to  Arkansas, 
southward  to  Alabama  and  northward  to  Illinois.     Re- 
sembling, and  probably  confounded  with,  tulip  wood  in 
the  markets. 

TUPELO.  (See  GUM.) 

WALNUT. 

78.  BLACK  WALNUT    (Juglans  nigra).     Wood  heavy, 
hard,   strong,  of  coarse  texture;  the  narrow   sapwood 
whitish,    the   heartwood   chocolate   brown.      The   wood 


TIMBEE  57 

shrinks  moderately  in  drying,  works  well  and  stands  well ; 
takes  a  good  polish.  It  is  quite  handsome,  and  has  been 
for  a  long  time  the  favorite  cabinet  wood  in  this  country. 
Walnut,  formerly  used  even  for  fencing,  has  become  too 
costly  for  ordinary  uses,  and  is  to-day  employed  largely 
as  a  veneer,  for  inside  finish  and  cabinet  work;  also  in 
turnery,  for  gunstocks,  etc.  Black  walnut  is  a  large  tree, 
with  stout  trunk,  of  rapid  growth,  and  was  formerly  quite 
abundant  throughout  the  Alleghany  region,  occurring 
from  New  England  to  Texas,  and  from  Michigan  to 
Florida. 

WHITE  WALNUT.  (See  BUTTEKNTJT.) 

WHITE  WOOD.   (See  TULIP  and  also  BASSWOOD.) 

WHITE  WILLOW. 

79.  WHITE  WILLOW  (Salix  alba).  The  wood  is  very 
soft,  light,  flexible  and  fairly  strong,  is  fairly  durable  in 
contact  with  the  soil,  works  well  and  stands  well  when 
seasoned.  Medium-sized  tree  characterized  by  a  short, 
thick  trunk  and  a  large,  rather  irregular  crown  composed 
of  many  small  branches.  The  size  of  the  tree  at  maturity 
varies  with  the  locality.  In  the  region  where  it  occurs 
naturally,  a  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and  a  diam- 
eter of  three  or  four  feet  are  attained.  When  planted 
in  the  Middle  West,  a  height  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  feet, 
and  a  diameter  of  one  and  one-half  to  two  feet,  are  all 
that  may  be  expected.  When  close  planted  on  moist 
soil,  the  tree  forms  a  tall,  slender  stem  well  cleared  of 
branches.  Is  widely  naturalized  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  used  in  slack  cooperage,  and  for  cricket  and  base- 
ball bats.  Charcoal  made  from  the  wood  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  gunpowder.  It  has  been  generally  used 
for  fence  posts  on  the  northwestern  plains,  because  of 
scarcity  of  better  material.  Well-seasoned  posts  will  last 
from  four  to  seven  years. 


58  COOPERAGE 

YELLOW  POPLAR. 

80.  YELLOW  POPLAK  (Liriodendron  tulipifera)  (TULIP 
TREE,  WHITEWOOD,  POPLAR,  WHITE  POPLAK,  BLUE  POPLAK, 
HICKORY  POPLAR).  Wood  usually  light,  but  varies  in 
weight;  it  is  soft,  tough,  but  not  strong,  of  fine  texture, 
and  yellowish  color.  The  wood  shrinks  considerably,  but 
seasons  without  much  injury  and  works  and  stands  ex- 
ceedingly well.  The  sapwood  is  thin,  light  in  color,  and 
decays  rapidly.  It  is  fairly  durable  when  exposed  to  the 
weather  or  in  contact  with  the  ground.  The  mature 
forest-grown  tree  has  a  long,  straight,  cylindrical  bole, 
clear  of  branches  for  at  least  two-thirds  of  its  length, 
surmounted  by  a  short,  open,  irregular  crown.  When 
growing  in  the  open,  the  tree  maintains  a  straight  stem, 
but  the  crown  extends  almost  to  the  ground,  and  is  of 
conical  shape.  Yellow  poplar  ordinarily  grows  to  a  height 
of  from  100  to  125  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  from  three  to 
six  feet,  and  a  clear  length  of  about  70  feet.  Trees 
have  been  found  190  feet  tall  and  ten  feet  in  diameter. 
The  wood  is  used  in  slack  cooperage,  for  siding,  panelling, 
and  interior  finishing,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  toys, 
boxes,  culinary  woodenware,  wagon  boxes,  carriage 
bodies  and  backing  for  veneer.  It  is  in  great  demand 
throughout  the  vehicle  and  implement  trade,  and  also 
makes  a  fair  grade  of  wood  pulp.  Occurs  from  New 
England  to  Missouri  and  southward  to  Florida. 

DIFFERENT  GRAINS  OF  WOOD 

The  terms  "fine-grained,"  "coarse-grained," 
"straight-grained"  and  "cross-grained"  are  frequently 
applied  in  the  trade.  In  common  usage,  wood  is  coarse- 
grained if  its  annual  rings  are  wide ;  fine-grained  if  they 
are  narrow.  In  the  finer  wood  industries  a  fine-grained 
wood  is  capable  of  high  polish,  while  a  coarse-grained 
wood  is  not,  so  that  in  this  latter  case  the  distinction 


TIMBER 


59 


depends  chiefly  on  hardness,  and  in  the  former  on  an 
accidental  case  of  slow  or  rapid  growth.  Generally  if 
the  direction  of  the  wood  fibres  is  parallel  to  the  axis  of 
the  stem  or  limb  in  which  they  occur,  the  wood  is  straight- 
grained;  but  in  many  cases  the  course  of  the  fibres  is 
spiral  or  twisted  around  the  tree  (as  shown  in  Fig.  10) 
and  sometimes  commonly  in  the  butts  of  gum  and  cy- 
press, the  fibres  of  several  layers  are  oblique  in  one  direc- 


ftorK 


FIG.  10 


FIG.  11 


FIG. 


10.     SPIRAL  GRAIN.    Season  checks,  after  removal  of  bark,  indicate  the 

direction  of  the  fibres  or  grain  of  the  wood. 

FIG.  11.  ALTERNATING  SPIRAL  GRAIN  IN  CYPRESS.  Side  and  end  view  of  same 
piece.  When  the  bark  was  at  o  the  grain  of  this  piece  was  straight 
From  that  time,  each  year  it  grew  more  oblique  in  one  direction,  reach- 
ing a  climax  at  a,  and  then  turned  back  in  the  opposite  direction.  These 
alternations  were  repeated  periodically,  the  bark  sharing  in  these 
changes. 

tion,  and  those  of  the  next  series  of  layers  are  oblique 
in  the  opposite  direction.  (As  shown  in  Fig.  11  the  wood 
is  cross  or  twisted  grain.)  Wavy- grain  in  a  tangential 
plain  as  seen  on  the  radial  section  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  12, 


60 


COOPEEAGE 


which  represents  an  extreme  case  observed  in  beech. 
This  same  fqrm  also  occurs  on  the  radial  plain,  causing 
the  tangential  section  to  appear  wavy  or  in  transverse 
folds.  When  wavy-grain  is  fine  (i.  e.,  the  folds  or  ridges 
small  but  numerous)  it  gives  rise  to  the  "curly"  struc- 
ture frequently  seen  in  maple.  Ordinarily,  neither  wavy, 
spiral,  nor  alternate  grain  is  visible  on  the  cross-section; 
its  existence  often  escapes  the  eye  even  on  smooth,  longi- 
tudinal faces  in  the  sawed  material,  so  that  the  only  safe 


4,ft. 


FIG.    12.      WAVY-GRAIN    IN    BEECH;    AFTER    NORDLINGER 

guide  to  their  discovery  lies  in  splitting  the  wood  in  two, 
in  the  two  normal  plains.  Generally  the  surface  of  the 
wood  under  the  bark,  and  therefore  also  that  of  any  layer 
in  the  interior,  is  not  uniform  and  smooth,  but  is  chan- 
nelled and  pitted  by  numerous  depressions,  which  differ 
greatly  in  size  and  form.  Usually,  any  one  depression 
or  elevation  is  restricted  to  one  or  few  annual  layers 


TIMBER 


61 


(i.  e.,  seen  only  in  one  or  few  rings)  and  is  then  lost,  being 
compensated  (the  surface  at  the  particular  spot  evened 
up)  by  growth.    In  some  woods,  however,  any  depression 
or  elevation  once  attained  grows  from  year  to  year  and 
reaches  a  maximum  size,  which  is  maintained  for  many 
years,  sometimes  throughout  life.    In  maple,  where  this 
tendency  to  preserve  any  particular  contour  is  very  great, 
the  depressions  and  elevations  are  usually  small  (com- 
monly less  than  one-eighth  inch)   but  very  numerous. 
On  tangent  boards  of  such  wood,  the  sections,  pits,  and 
prominences  appear  as  circlets,  and  give  rise  to  the  beau- 
tiful  "birdseye"   or   "landscape" 
structure.      Similar    structures    in 
the  burls  of  black  ash,  maple,  etc., 
are  frequently  due  to  the  presence 
of  dormant  buds,  which  cause  the 
surface  of  all  the  layers  through 
which  they  pass  to  be  covered  by 
small     conical     elevations,     whose 
cross-sections  on  the  sawed  board 
appear    as    irregular    circlets    or 
islets,  each  with  a  dark  speck,  the 
section  of  the  pith  or  "trace"  of 
the  dormant  bud  in  the  centre.    In 
the    wood    of    many    broad-leaved 
trees    the   wood   fibres    are    much 
longer  when  full  grown  than  when 
they  are  first  formed  in  the  cam- 
bium or  growing  zone.    This  causes 
the  tips  of  each  fibre  to  crowd  in 
between  the  fibres  above  and  be- 
low, and  leads  to  an  irregular  in- 
terlacement of  these  fibres,  which 

*P,  pith   of  both  stem  and  limb;   1-7,  seven  yearly  layers  of  wood; 
a,  b,  knot  or  basal  part  of  a  limb  which  lived  four  years,  then  died  and 


*FiG.  13.  SECTION  OF  WOOD 
SHOWING  POSITION  OF  THE 
GRAIN  AT  BASE  OF  A  LIMB. 


62  COOPERAGE 

adds  to  the  toughness,  but  reduces  the  cleavability  of 
the  wood.  At  the  juncture  of  the  limb  and  stem  the 
fibres  on  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of  the  limb  behave 
differently.  On  the  lower  side  they  run  from  the  stem 
into  the  limb,  forming  an  uninterrupted  strand  or  tissue 
and  a  perfect  union.  On  the  upper  side  the  fibres  bend 
aside,  are  not  continuous  into  the  limb,  and  hence  the 
connection  is  not  perfect.  (See  Fig.  13.)  Owing  to  this 
arrangement  of  the  fibres,  the  cleft  made  in  splitting 
never  runs  into  the  knot  if  started  on  the  side  above  the 
limb,  but  is  apt  to  enter  the  knot  if  started  below,  a  fact 
well  understood  in  woodcraft.  When  limbs  die,  decay, 
and  break  off,  the  remaining  stubs  are  surrounded,  and 
may  finally  be  covered  by  the  growth  of  the  trunk  and 
thus  give  rise  to  the  annoying  "dead"  or  "loose"  knots. 

COLOK  AND   ODOR 

Color,  like  structure,  lends  beauty  to  the  wood,  aids  in 
its  identification,  and  is  of  great  value  in  the  determina- 
tion of  its  quality.  Considering  only  the  heartwood,  the 
black  color  of  the  persimmon,  the  dark  brown  of  the  wal- 
nut, the  light  brown  of  the  white  oaks,  the  reddish  brown 
of  the  red  oaks,  the  yellowish  white  of  the  tulip  and  pop- 
lars, the  brownish  red  of  the  redwood  and  cedars,  the 
yellow  of  the  papaw  and  sumac,  are  all  reliable  marks  of 
distinction,  and  color.  Together  with  lustre  and  weight, 
are  only  too  often  the  only  features  depended  upon  in 
practice.  Newly  formed  wood,  like  that  of  the  outer  few 
rings,  has  but  little  color.  The  sapwood  generally  is 
light,  and  the  wood  of  trees  which  form  no  heartwood 
changes  but  little,  except  when  stained  by  forerunners  of 

broke  off  near  the  stem,  leaving  the  part  to  the  left  of  a,  b,  a  "sound" 
knot,  the  part  to  the  right  a  "dead"  knot,  which  would  soon  be  entirely 
covered  by  the  growing  stem. 


TIMBER  63 

disease.  The  different  tints  of  colors,  whether  the  brown 
of  oak,  the  orange-brown  of  pine,  the  blackish  tint  of 
walnut,  or  the  reddish  cast  of  cedar,  are  due  to  pigments, 
while  the  deeper  shade  of  the  summer-wood  bands  in 
pine,  cedar,  oak,  or  walnut  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  wood 
being  denser,  more  of  the  colored  wood  substance  occurs 
on  a  given  space,  i.  e.,  there  is  more  colored  matter  per 
square  inch.  Wood  is  translucent,  a  thin  disk  of  pine 
permitting  light  to  pass  through  quite  freely.  This  trans- 
lucency  affects  the  lustre  and  brightness  of  lumber. 
When  lumber  is  attacked  by  fungi,  it  becomes  more 
opaque,  loses  its  brightness,  and  in  practice  is  designated 
"dead,"  in  distinction  to  "live"  or  bright  timber.  Ex- 
posure to  air  darkens  all  wood ;  direct  sunlight  and  occa- 
sional moistening  hastens  this  change,  and  causes  it  to 
penetrate  deeper.  Prolonged  immersion  has  the  same 
effect,  pine  wood  becoming  a  dark  gray,  while  oak 
changes  to  a  blackish  brown.  Odor,  like  color,  depends 
on  chemical  compounds,  forming  no  part  of  the  wood 
substance  itself.  Exposure  to  weather  reduces  and  often 
changes  the  odor,  but  a  piece  of  long-leaf  pine,  cedar, 
or  camphor  wood  exhales  apparently  as  much  odor  as 
ever  when  a  new  surface  is  exposed.  Heartwood  is  more 
odoriferous  than  sapwood.  Many  kinds  of  wood  are  dis- 
tinguished by  strong  and  peculiar  odors.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  with  camphor,  cedar,  pine,  oak  and  mahog- 
any, and  the  list  would  comprise  every  kind  of  wood  in 
use  were  our  sense  of  smell  developed  in  keeping  with 
its  importance.  Decomposition  is  usually  accompanied 
by  pronounced  odors.  Decaying  poplar  emits  a  disagree- 
able odor,  while  red  oak  often  becomes  fragrant,  its  smell 
resembling  that  of  heliotrope. 

WEIGHT    OF    WOOD 

A  small  cross-section  of  wood  (as  in  Fig.  14)  dropped 


64 


COOPEEAGE 


into  water  sinks,  showing  that  the  substance  of  which 
wood  fibre  or  wood  is  built  up  is  heav- 
ier than  water.  By  immersing  the 
wood  successively  in  heavier  liquids, 
until  we  find  a  liquid  in 
which  it  does  not  sink,  and 
comparing  the  weight  of 

FIG.  14.    CROSS*SECTION  the    same    with    water,    we 
OF  A  GROUP  OP  WOOD  find  that  wood  substance  is 

FIBRES.    Highly         about  Lg  timeg  ag  he  ag 

magnified. 

water,  and  that  this  is  as 
true  of  poplar  as  of  oak  or  pine.  Separating 
a  single  cell  (as  shown  in  Fig.  15,  a),  drying 
and  then  dropping  it  into  water,  it  floats.  The 
air-filled  cell  cavity  or  interior  reduces  its 
weight,  and,  like  an  empty  corked  bottle,  it 
weighs  less  than  the  water.  Soon,  however, 
water  soaks  into  the  cell,  when  it  fills  up  and 
sinks.  Many  such  cells  grown  together,  as 
in  a  block  of  wood,  sink  when  all  or  most 
of  them  are  filled  with  water,  but  will  float  as  long 
as  the  majority  of  them  are  empty  or  only  partially 
filled.  This  is  why  a  green,  sappy  pine  pole  soon  sinks 
in  "driving"  (floating).  Its  cells  are  largely  filled  be- 
fore it  is  thrown  in,  and  but  little  additional  water  suf- 
fices to  make  its  weight  greater  than  that  of  the  water. 
In  a  good-sized  white  pine  log,  composed  chiefly  of  empty 
cells  (heartwood),  the  water  requires  a  very  long  time 
to  fill  up  the  cells  (five  years  would  not  suffice  to  fill  them 
all),  and  therefore  the  log  may  float  for  many  months. 
When  the  wall  of  the  wood  fibre  is  very  thick  (five-eighths 
or  more  of  the  volume,  as  in  Fig.  15,  &)',  the  fibre  sinks 
whether  empty  or  filled.  This  applies  to  most  of  the 
fibres  of  the  dark  summer-wood  bands  in  pines,  and  to 
the  compact  fibres  of  oak  or  hickory,  and  many,  especially 


FIG.  15. 

ISOLATED 

FIBRES  OF 

WOOD. 


TIMBEE 


65 


tropical  woods,  have  such  thick-walled  cells  and  so  little 
empty  or  air  space  that  they  never  float.  Here,  then,  are 
the  two  main  factors  of  weight  in  wood :  the  amount  of 
cell  wall  or  wood  substance  constant  for  any  given  piece, 
and  the  amount  of  water  contained  in  the  wood,  variable 
even  in  the  standing  tree,  and  only  in  part  eliminated  in 
drying.  The  weight  of  the  green  wood  of  any  species 
varies  chiefly  as  a  second  factor,  and  is  entirely  mislead- 
ing, if  the  relative  weight  of  different  kinds  is  sought. 
Thus  some  green  sticks  of  the  otherwise  lighter  cypress 


ctisc.4 


dist.3 


diac.Z 


disc.t 


FIG.  16.     ORIENTATION  OF  WOOD  SAMPLES. 

and  gum  sink  more  readily  than  fresh  oak.  The  weight 
of  sapwood  or  the  sappy,  peripheral  part  of  our  com- 
mon lumber  woods  is  always  great,  whether  cut  in  winter 
or  summer.  It  rarely  falls  much  below  forty-five  pounds, 
and  commonly  exceeds  fifty-five  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot, 
even  in  our  lighter  wooded  species.  It  follows  that  the 
green  wood  of  a  sapling  is  heavier  than  that  of  an  old 


66  COOPEBAGE 

tree,  the  fresh  wood  from  a  disk  of  the  upper  part  of  a 
tree  often  heavier  than  that  of  a  lower  part,  and  the 
wood  near  the  bark  heavier  than  that  nearer  the  pith; 
and  also  that  the  advantage  of  drying  the  wood  before 
shipping  is  most  important  in  sappy  and  light  kinds. 
When  kiln-dried,  the  misleading  moisture  factor  of  weight 
is  uniformly  reduced,  and  a  fair  comparison  possible. 
For  the  sake  of  convenience  in  comparison,  the  weight  of 
wood  is  expressed  either  as  the  weight  per  cubic  foot, 
or,  what  is  still  more  convenient,  as  specific  weight  or 
density.  If  an  old  long-leaf  pine  is  cut  up  (as  shown  in 
Fig.  16)  the  wood  of  disk  No.  1  is  heavier  than  that  of 
disk  No.  2,  the  latter  heavier  than  that  of  disk  No.  3,  and 
the  wood  of  the  top  disk  is  found  to  be  only  about  three- 
fourths  as  heavy  as  that  of  disk  No.  1.  Similarly,  if  disk 
No.  2  is  cut  up,  as  in  the  figure,  the  specific  weight  of  the 
different  parts  is : 

a,  about  0.52 

6,  about  0.64 

c,  about  0.67 
d,  e,  f,  about  0.65 

showing  that  in  this  disk  at  least  the  wood  formed  dur- 
ing the  many  years'  growth,  represented  in  piece  a,  is 
much  lighter  than  that  of  former  years.  It  also  shows 
that  the  best  wood  is  the  middle  part,  with  its  large  pro- 
portion of  dark  summer  bands.  Cutting  up  all  disks  in 
the  same  way,  it  will  be  found  that  the  piece  a  of  the 
first  disk  is  heavier  than  the  piece  a  of  the  fifth,  and 
that  piece  c  of  the  first  disk  excels  the  piece  c  of  all  the 
other  disks.  This  shows  that  the  wood  grown  during 
the  same  number  of  years  is  lighter  in  the  upper  parts 
of  the  stem ;  and  if  the  disks  are  smoothed  on  their  radial 
surfaces  and  set  up  one  on  top  of  the  other  in  their 
regular  order,  for  the  sake  of  comparison,  this  decrease 


TIMBEK  67 

in  weight  will  be  seen  to  be  accompanied  by  a  decrease 
in  the  amount  of  summer-wood.  The  color  effect  of  the 
upper  disks  is  conspicuously  lighter.  If  our  old  pine 
had  been  cut  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago,  before 
the  outer,  lighter  wood  was  laid  on,  it  is  evident  that 
the  weight  of  the  wood  of  any  one  disk  would  have  been 
found  to  increase  from  the  centre  outward,  and  no  sub- 
sequent decrease  could  have  been  observed.  In  a  thrifty 
young  pine,  then,  the  wood  is  heavier  from  the  centre 
outward,  and  lighter  from  below  upward ;  only  the  wood 
laid  on  in  old  age  falls  in  weight  below  the  average.  The 
number  of  brownish  bands  of  summer-wood  are  a  direct 
indication  of  these  differences.  If  an  old  oak  is  cut  up 
in  the  same  manner,  the  butt  cut  is  also  found  heaviest 
and  the  top  lightest,  but,  unlike  the  disk  of  pine,  the  disk 
of  oak  has  its  firmest  wood  at  the  centre,  and  each  suc- 
cessive piece  from  the  centre  outward  is  lighter  than  its 
neighbor.  Examining  the  pieces,  this  difference  is  not 
as  readily  explained  by  the  appearance  of  each  piece  as 
in  the  case  of  pine  wood.  Nevertheless,  one  conspicuous 
point  appears  at  once.  The  pores,  so  very  distinct  in  oak, 
are  very  minute  in  the  Wood  near  the  centre,  and  thus 
the  wood  is  far  less  porous. 

Studying  different  trees,  it  is  found  that  in  the  pines, 
wood  with  narrow  rings  is  just  as  heavy  as  and  often 
heavier  than  the  wood  with  wider  rings ;  but  if  the  rings 
are  unusually  narrow  in  any  part  of  the  disk,  the  wood 
has  a  lighter  color ;  that  is,  there  is  less  summer-wood  and 
therefore  less  weight.  In  oak,  ash,  or  elm  trees  of  thrifty 
growth,  the  rings,  fairly  wide  (not  less  than  one-twelfth 
inch),  always  form  the  heaviest  wood,  while  any  piece 
with  very  narrow  rings  is  light.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
weight  of  a  piece  of  hard  maple  or  birch  is  quite  inde- 
pendent of  the  width  of  its  rings.  The  bases  of  limbs 
(knots)  are  usually  heavy,  very  heavy  in  conifers,  and 


68 


COOPERAGE 


also  the  wood  which  surrounds  them,  but  generally  the 
wood  of  the  limbs  is  lighter  than  that  of  the  stem,  and 
the  wood  of  the  roots  is  the  lightest.  In  general,  it  may 
be  said  that  none  of  the  native  woods  in  common  use  in 
this  country  are  when  dry  as  heavy  as  water,  i.  e.,  sixty- 
two  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot.  Few  exceed  fifty  pounds, 
while  most  of  them  fall  below  forty  pounds,  and  much  of 
the  pine  and  other  coniferous  wood  weigh  less  than  thirty 
pounds  per  cubic  foot.  The  weight  of  the  wood  is  in  itself 
an  important  quality.  Weight  assists  in  distinguishing 
maple  from  poplar.  Lightness  coupled  with  great 
strength  and  stiffness  recommends  wood  for  a  thousand 
different  uses.  To  a  large  extent  weight  predicates  the 
strength  of  the  wood,  at  least  in  the  same  species,  so  that 
a  heavy  piece  of  oak  will  exceed  in  strength  a  light  piece 
of  the  same  species,  and  in  pine  it  appears  probable  that, 
weight  for  weight,  the  strength  of  the  wood  of  various 
pines  is  nearly  equal. 

WEIGHT  OF  KILN-DRTED  WOOD  OF  DIFFERENT  SPECIES 


SPECIES                           , 

APPROXIMATE 

SPECIFIC 
WEIGHT 

WEIGHT  OF 

1 
CUBIC 
FOOT 

1,000 
FEET 
LUMBER 

(a)  Very  Heavy  Woods: 
Hickory.   Oak.    Persimmon,    Osage   Orange,   Blnck 
Locust,  Hackberry,  Blue  Beech,  Best  of  Elm,  and 
Ash 

0.70-0.80 
0.60-0.70 

0.50-0.60 

0.40-0.50 
0.30-0.40 

Pounds 
42-48 
36-42 

30-36 

24-30 

18-24 

Pounds 
3,700 
3,200 

2,700 

2,200 
1,800 

(b)  Heavy  Woods: 
Ash,  Elm,  Cherry,   Birch,  Maple,   Beech,   Walnut, 
Sour   Gum,    Coffee   Tree,    Honey    Locust.    Best   of 
Southern  Pine  and  Tamarack                       

(c)  Woods  of  Medium  Weight: 
Southern    Pine.    Pitch    Pine,   Tamarack,   Douglass 
Spruce,  Western  Hemlock.  Sweet  Gum,  Soft  Maple, 
Sycamore.   Sassafras,   Mulberry,   Light  Grades  of 
Birch    and  Cherry 

(d)  Light  Woods: 
Norway  and  Bull  Pine,  Red  Cedar,  Cypress.  Hem- 
lock, the  Heavier  Spruce  and  Fir,  Redwood,  Bass- 
wood,  Chestnut,  Butternut,  Tulip.  Catalpa,  Buck- 
eye   Heavier  Grades  of  Poplar 

(e)  Very  Light  Woods: 
White  Pine,  Spruce,  Fir,  White  Cedar,  Poplar  

SECTION   II 


ENEMIES  OF  WOOD 


ENEMIES   OF   WOOD 


GENERAL   REMARKS 

FROM  the  writer's  personal  investigations  of  this  sub- 
ject in  different  sections  of  the  country,  the  damage  to 
forest  products  of  various  kinds  from  this  cause  seems  to 
be  far  more  extensive  than  is  generally  recognized.  Al- 
lowing a  loss  of  five  per  cent,  on  the  total  value  of  the 
forest  products  of  the  country,  which  the  writer  believes 
to  be  a  conservative  estimate,  it  would  amount  to  some- 
thing over  $30,000,000  annually.  This  loss  differs  from 
that  resulting  from  insect  damage  to  natural  forest  re- 
sources, in  that  it  represents  more  directly  a  loss  of 
money  invested  in  material  and  labor.  In  dealing  with 
the  insects  mentioned,  as  with  forest  insects  in  general, 
the  methods  which  yield  the  best  results  are  those  which 
relate  directly  to  preventing  attack,  as  well  as  those  which 
are  unattractive  or  unfavorable.  The  insects  have  two 
objects  in  their  attack:  one  is  to  obtain  food,  the  other 
is  to  prepare  for  the  development  of  their  broods.  Dif- 
ferent species  of  insects  have  special  periods  during  the 
season  of  activity  (March  to  November),  when  the  adults 
are  on  the  wing  in  search  of  suitable  material  in  which 
to  deposit  their  eggs.  Some  species,  which  fly  in  April, 
will  be  attracted  to  the  trunks  of  recently  felled  pine  trees 
or  to  piles  of  pine  sawlogs  from  trees  felled  the  previous 
winter.  They  are  not  attracted  to  any  other  kind  of  tim- 
ber, because  they  can  live  only  in  the  bark  or  wood  of 
pine,  and  only  in  that  which  is  in  the  proper  condition  to 
favor  the  hatching  of  their  eggs  and  the  normal  develop- 
ment of  their  young.  As  they  fly  only  in  April,  they  can- 


72  COOPERAGE 

not  injure  the  logs  of  trees  felled  during  the  remainder 
of  the  year. 

There  are  also  oak  insects,  which  attack  nothing  but 
oak ;  hickory,  cypress,  and  spruce  insects,  etc.,  which  have 
different  habits  and  different  periods  of  flight,  and  re- 
quire special  conditions  of  the  bark  and  wood  for  deposit- 
ing their  eggs  or  for  the  subsequent  development  of  their 
broods.  Some  of  these  insects  have  but  one  generation 
in  a  year,  others  have  two  or  more,  while  some  require 
more  than  one  year  for  their  complete  development  and 
transformation.  Some  species  deposit  their  eggs  in  the 
bark  or  wood  of  trees  soon  after  they  are  felled  or  before 
any  perceptible  change  from  the  nornml  living  tissue 
has  taken  place ;  other  species  are  attracted  only  to  dead 
bark  and  dead  wood  of  trees  which  have  been  felled  or 
girdled  for  several  months;  others  are  attracted  to  dry 
and  seasoned  wood ;  while  another  class  will  attack  noth- 
ing but  very  old  dry  bark  or  wood  of  special  kinds  and 
under  special  conditions.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  how  impor- 
tant it  is  for  the  practical  man  to  have  know] edge  of 
such  of  the  foregoing  facts  as  apply  to  his  immediate 
interest  in  the  manufacture  or  utilization  of  a  given  for- 
est product,  in  order  that  he  may  with  the  least  trouble 
and  expense  adjust  his  business  methods  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements for  preventing  losses.  The  work  of  different 
kinds  of  insects,  as  represented  by  special  injuries  to 
forest  products,  is  the  first  thing  to  attract  attention, 
and  the  distinctive  character  of  this  work  is  easily  ob- 
served, while  the  insect  responsible  for  it  is  seldom  seen, 
or  it  is  so  difficult  to  determine  by  the  general  observer 
from  descriptions  or  illustrations  that  the  species  is 
rarely  recognized.  Fortunately,  the  character  of  the 
work  is  often  sufficient  in  itself  to  identify  the  cause  and 
suggest  a  remedy,  and  in  this  section  primary  considera- 
tion is  given  to  this  phase  of  the  subject. 


ENEMIES   OF  WOOD 


73 


FIG.  17.  WORK  OF  AMBROSIA  BEETLES  IN  TULIP  OR  YELLOW  POPLAR  WOOD: 
a,  work  of  X yleborus  affinis  and  Xyleboris  inermis;  6,  Xyleboris  obesus 
and  work;  c,  bark;  d,  sapwood;  e,  heartwood. 


FIG.  18.  WORK  OF  AMBROSIA  BEETLES  IN  OAK:  a,  Monarthrum  mali  and 
work;  b,  Platypus  compositus  and  work;  c,  bark;  d,  sapwood;  e,  heart- 
wood  ;  f,  character  of  work  in  wood  from  injured  log. 


74  COOPERAGE 


AMBROSIA  OR  TIMBER  BEETLES 

The  characteristic  work  of  this  class  of  wood-boring 
beetles  is  shown  in  Figs.  17  and  18.  The  injury  consists 
of  pinhole  and  stained-wood  defects  in  the  sapwood  and 
heartwood  of  recently  felled  or  girdled  trees,  sawlogs, 
pulpwood,  stave  and  shingle  bolts,  green  or  unseasoned 
lumber,  and  staves  and  heads  of  barrels  containing  alco- 
holic liquids.  The  holes  and  galleries  are  made  by  the 
adult  parent  beetles,  to  serve  as  entrances  and  temporary 
houses  or  nurseries  for  the  development  of  their  broods 
of  young,  which  feed  on  a  kind  of  fungus  growing  on  the 
walls  of  the  galleries.  The  growth  of  this  ambrosia-like 
fungus  is  induced  and  controlled  by  the  parent  beetles, 
and  the  young  are  dependent  upon  it  for  food.  The  wood 
must  be  in  exactly  the  proper  condition  for  the  growth 
of  the  fungus  in  order  to  attract  the  beetles  and  induce 
them  to  excavate  their  galleries;  it  must  have  a  certain 
degree  of  moisture  and  other  favorable  qualities,  which 
usually  prevail  during  the  period  involved  in  the  change' 
from  living,  or  normal,  to  dead  or  dry  wood ;  such  a  con- 
dition is  found  in  recently  felled  trees,  sawlogs,  or  like 
crude  products.  There  are  two  general  types  or  classes 
of  these  galleries:  one  in  which  the  broods  develop  to- 
gether in  the  main  burrows  (Fig.  17),  the  other  in  which 
the  individuals  develop  in  short,  separate  side  chambers, 
extending  at  right  angles  from  the  primary  galleries. 
(Fig.  18.)  The  galleries  of  the  latter  type  are  usually 
accompanied  by  a  distinct  staining  of  the  wood,  while 
those  of  the  former  are  not.  The  beetles  responsible  for 
this  work  are  cylindrical  in  form,  apparently  with  a 
head  (the  prothorax)  half  as  long  as  the  remainder  of 
the  body.  (Figs.  17,  a,  and  18,  a.)  North  American 
species  vary  in  size  from  less  than  one-tenth  to  slightly 
more  than  two-tenths  of  an  inch,  while  some  of  the  sub- 


ENEMIES   OF  WOOD 


75 


tropical  and  tropical  species  attain  a  much  larger  size. 
The  diameter  of  the  holes  made  by  each  species  cor- 
responds closely  to  that  of  the  body,  and  varies  from 
about  one-twentieth  to  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  for  the 
tropical  species. 

ROUND-HEADED    BOKEKS 

The  character  of  the  work  of  this  class  of  wood  and 
bark-boring  grubs  is  shown  in  Fig.  19.    The  injuries  con- 


cu. 


FIG.  19.  WORK  OF  ROUND-HEADED  AND  FLAT-HEADED  BORERS  IN  PINE:  a, 
work  of  round-headed  borer,  "sawyer,"  Monohammus  sp.,  natural  size; 
b,  Ergatcs  spiculatus;  c,  work  of  flat-headed  borer,  Buprestis,  larva 
and  adult;  d,  bark;  e,  sapwood;  fy  heartwood. 

sist  of  irregular  flattened  or  nearly  round  wormhole  de- 
fects in  the  wood,  which  sometimes  result  in  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  valuable  parts  of  wood  or  bark  material.  The 
sapwood  and  heartwood  of  recently  felled  trees,  sawlogs, 
poles,  posts,  mine  props,  pulpwood  and  cordwood,  also 
lumber  or  square  timber,  with  bark  on  the  edges,  and 
construction  timber  in  new  and  old  buildings,  are  injured 
by  wormhole  defects,  while  the  valuable  parts  of  stored 


76 


COOPERAGE 


oak  and  hemlock  tanbark  and  certain  kinds  of  wood  are 
converted  into  worm-dust.  These  injuries  are  caused  by 
the  young  or  larvae  of  long-horned  beetles.  Those  which 
infest  the  wood  hatch  from  eggs  deposited  in  the  outer 
bark  of  logs  and  like  material,  and  the  minute  grubs 
hatching  therefrom  bore  into  the  inner  bark,  through 
which  they  extend  their  irregular  burrows,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  food  from  the  sap  and  other  nutritive 
material  found  in  the  plant  tissue.  They  continue  to 


'—€. 


FIG.  20.  WORK  OF  TIMBER  WORMS  IN  OAK:  a,  work  of  oak  timber  worm, 
Eupsalis  minuta;  b,  barked  surface;  c,  bark;  d,  sapwood  timber  worm, 
Hyloccetus  lugubris,  and  work;  e,  sapwood. 


extend  and  enlarge  their  burrows  as  they  increase  in  size, 
until  they  are  nearly  or  quite  full  grown.  They  then 
enter  the  wood  and  continue  their  excavations  deep  into 
the  sapwood  or  heartwood  until  they  attain  their  normal 
size.  They  then  excavate  pupa  cells  in  which  to  trans- 
form into  adults,  which  emerge  from  the  wood  through 
exit  holes  in  the  surface.  This  class  of  borers  is  repre- 
sented by  a  large  number  of  species.  The  adults,  how- 


ENEMIES   OF  WOOD  77 

ever,  are  seldom  seen  by  the  general  observer  unless  cut 
out  of  the  wood  before  they  have  emerged. 

FLAT-HEADED    BORERS 

The  work  of  the  flat-headed  borers  (Fig.  19)  is  only  dis- 
tinguished from  that  of  the  preceding  by  the  broad,  shal- 
low burrows,  and  the  much  more  oblong  form  of  the  exit 
holes.  In  general,  the  injuries  are  similar,  and  affect  the 
same  class  of  products,  but  they  are  of  much  less  impor- 
tance. The  adult  forms  are  flattened,  metallic-colored 
beetles,  and  represent  many  species,  of  various  sizes. 

TIMBER  WORMS 

The  character  of  the  work  done  by  this  class  is  shown 
in  Fig.  20.  The  injury  consists  of  pinhole  defects  in 
the  sapwood  and  heartwood  of  felled  trees,  sawlogs  and 
like  material  which  have  been  left  in  the  woods  or  in  piles 
in  the  open  for  several  months  during  the  warmer  sea- 
sons. Stave  and  shingle  bolts  and  closely  piled  oak  lum- 
ber and  square  timbers  also  suffer  from  injury  of  this 
kind.  These  injuries  are  made  by  elongate,  slender 
worms  or  larvae,  which  hatch  from  eggs  deposited  by  the 
adult  beetles  in  the  outer  bark,  or,  where  there  is  no  bark, 
just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  wood.  At  first  the  young 
larvae  bore  almost  invisible  holes  for  a  long  distance 
through  the  sapwood  and  heartwood,  but  as  they  increase 
in  size  the  same  holes  are  enlarged  and  extended  until 
the  larvae  have  attained  their  full  growth.  They  then 
transform  to  adults,  and  emerge  through  the  enlarged 
entrance  burrows.  The  work  of  these  timber  worms  is 
distinguished  from  that  of  the  timber  beetles  by  the 
greater  variation  in  the  size  of  holes  in  the  same  piece 
of  wood,  also  by  the  fact  that  they  are  not  branched  from 
a  single  entrance  or  gallery,  as  are  those  made  by  the 
beetles. 


78 


COOPERAGE 

POWDER   POST   BORERS 


The  character  of  work  of  this  class  of  insects  is  shown 
in  Figs.  21,  22  and  23.  The  injury  consists  of  closely 
placed  burrows,  packed  with  borings,  or  a  completely  de- 


FIG.  21.  WORK  OF  POWDER  POST  BEETLE,  Sinoxylon  basilarc,  IN  HICKORY 
POLES,  showing  transverse  egg  galleries  excavated  by  the  adult;  a,  en- 
trance; 6,  gallery;  c,  adult. 

stroyed  or  powdered  condition  of  the  wood  of  seasoned 
products,  such  as  lumber,  crude  arid  finished  handle  and 
wagon  stock,  cooperage  and  wooden  truss  hoops,  fur- 


FIG.  22.  WORK  OF  POWDER  POST  BEETLE,  Sinoxylon  basilare,  IN  HICKORY 
POLE:  a,  character  of  work  by  larvae;  5,  exit  holes  made  by  emerging 
broods. 


niture,  and  inside  finish  woodwork,  in  old  buildings,  as 
well  as  in  many  other  crude  or  finished  and  utilized  woods. 
This  is  the  work  of  both  the  adults  and  young  stages  of 
some  species,  or  of  the  larval  stage  alone  of  others.  In 


ENEMIES   OF  WOOD 


79 


the  former,  the  adult  beetles  deposit  their  eggs  in  bur- 
rows or  galleries  excavated  for  the  purpose,  as  in  Figs. 
21  and  22,  while  in  the  latter 
(Fig.  23)  the  eggs  are  on  or  be- 
neath the  surface  of  the  wood. 
The  grubs  complete  the  de- 
struction by  boring  through  the 
solid  wood  in  all  directions  and 
packing  their  burrows  with  the 
powdered  wood.  When  they 
are  full  grown  they  transform 
to  the  adult,  and  emerge  from 
the  injured  material  through 
holes  in  the  surface.  Some  of 
the  species  continue  to  work 
in  the  same  wood  until  many 
generations  have  developed 
and  emerged,  or  until  every 
particle  of  wood  tissue  has 
been  destroyed  and  the  avail- 
able nutritive  substance  ex- 
tracted. 


CONDITIONS    FAVORABLE    FOB    IN- 
SECT      INJURY — CRUDE       PROD- 
UCTS  ROUND  TIMBER  WITH 

BARK   ON 

Newly  felled  trees,  sawlogs, 
stave  and  heading  bolts,  tele- 
graph poles,  ,posts,  and  the 
like  material,  cut  in  the  fall 
and  winter,  and  left  on  the 
ground  or  in  close  piles  dur- 
ing a  few  weeks  or  months  in 
causing  them  to  heat  and  sweat, 


FIG.  23  WORK  OF  POWDER 
POST  BEETLE,  Lyctusstriatus, 
IN  HICKORY  HANDLES  AND 
SPOKES:  a,  larva;  b,  pupa; 
c,  adult;  d,  exit  holes;  e,  en- 
trance of  larvae  (vents  for  bor- 
ings are  exits  of  parasites); 
/,  work  of  larvae;  g,  wood, 
completely  destroyed;  h,  sap- 
wood;  i,  heartwood. 

the  spring  or  summer, 
are  especially  liable  to 


80  COOPERAGE 

injury  by  ambrosia  beetles  (Figs.  17  and  18),  round  and 
flat-headed  borers  (Fig.  19),  and  timbe.r  worms  (Fig.  20), 
as  are  also  trees  felled  in  the  warm  season,  and  left  for 
a  time  before  working  up  into  lumber.  The  proper  de- 
gree of  moisture  found  in  freshly  cut  living  or  dying 
wood,  and  the  period  when  the  insects  are  flying,  are 
the  conditions  most  favorable  for  attack.  This  period 
of  danger  varies  with  the  time  of  the  year  the  timber  is 
felled  and  with  the  different  kinds  of  trees.  Those  felled 
in  late  fall  and  winter  will  generally  remain  attractive 
to  ambrosia  beetles,  and  to  the  adults  of  round  and  flat- 
headed  borers  during  March,  April  and  May.  Those  felled 
in  April  to  September  may  be  attacked  in  a  few  days 
after  they  are  felled,  and  the  period  of  danger  may  not 
extend  over  more  than  a  few  weeks.  Certain  kinds  of 
trees  felled  during  certain  months  and  seasons  are  never 
attacked,  because  the  danger  period  prevails  only  when 
the  insects  are  flying ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  same  kinds 
of  trees  are  felled  at  a  different  time,  the  conditions  may 
be  most  attractive  when  the  insects  are  active,  and  they 
will  be  thickly  infested  and  ruined.  The  presence  of  bark 
is  absolutely  necessary  for  infestation  by  most  of  the 
wood-boring  grubs,  since  the  eggs  and  young  stages  must 
occupy  the  outer  and  inner  portions  before  they  can  enter 
the  wood.  Some  ambrosia  beetles  and  timber  worms  will, 
however,  attack  barked  logs,  especially  those  in  close 
piles,  and  others  shaded  and  protected  from  rapid  drying. 
The  sapwood  of  pine,  spruce,  fir,  cedar,  cypress,  and  like 
softwoods  is  especially  liable  to  injury  by  ambrosia 
beetles,  while  the  heartwood  is  sometimes  ruined  by  a 
class  of  round-headed  borers,  known  as  "sawyers."  Yel- 
low poplar,  oak,  chestnut,  gum,  hickory,  and  most  other 
hardwoods  are  as  a  rule  attacked  by  species  of  ambrosia 
beetles,  sawyers,  and  timber  worms,  different  from  those 
infesting  the  pines,  there  being  but  very  few  species 


ENEMIES  OF  WOOD  81 

which  attack  both.  Mahogany  and  other  rare  and  valuable 
woods  imported  from  the  tropics  to  this  country  in  the 
form  of  round  logs,  with  or  without  bark  on,  are  com- 
monly damaged  more  or  less  seriously  by  ambrosia 
beetles  and  timber  worms.  It  would  appear  from  the 
writer's  investigations  of  logs  received  at  the  mills  in 
this  country,  that  the  principal  damage  is  done  during  a 
limited  period — from  the  time  the  trees  are  felled  until 
they  are  placed  in  fresh  or  salt  water  for  transporta- 
tion to  the  shipping  points.  If,  however,  the  logs  are 
loaded  on  the  vessel  direct  from  the  shore,  or  if  not  left 
in  the  water  long  enough  to  kill  the  insects,  the  latter 
will  continue  their  destructive  work  during  transporta- 
tion to  this  country  and  after  they  arrive,  and  until  cold 
weather  ensues  or  the  logs  are  converted  into  lumber. 
It  was  also  found  that  a  thorough  soaking  in  sea-water, 
while  it  usually  killed  the  insects  at  the  time,  did  not  pre- 
vent subsequent  attacks  by  both  foreign  and  native  am- 
brosia beetles;  also,  that  the  removal  of  the  bark  from 
such  logs  previous  to  their  immersion  did  not  render  them 
entirely  immune.  Those  with  the  bark  off  were  attacked 
more  than  those  with  it  on,  owing  to  the  greater  amount 
of  saline  moisture  retained  by  the  bark. 

HOW   TO   PKEVENT   INJUKY 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  some  requisites 
for  preventing  these  insect  injuries  to  round  timber  are : 

1.  To  provide  for  as  little  delay  as  possible  between 
the  felling  of  the  tree  and  its  manufacture  into  rough 
products.    This  is  especially  necessary  with  trees  felled 
from  April  to  September,  in  the  region  north  of  the  Gulf 
States,  and  from  March  to  November  in  the  latter,  while 
the  late  fall  and  winter  cutting  should  all  be  worked  up 
by  March  or  April. 

2.  If  the  round  timber  must  be  left  in  the  woods  or  on 


82  COOPEEAGE 

the  skidways  during  the  danger  period,  every  precaution 
should  be  taken  to  facilitate  rapid  drying  of  the  inner 
bark,  by  keeping  the  logs  off  the  ground,  in  the  sun,  or 
in  loose  piles;  or  else  the  opposite  extreme  should  be 
adopted  and  the  logs  kept  in  water. 

3.  The  immediate  removal  of  all  the  bark  from  poles, 
posts  and  other  material  which  will  not  be  seriously  dam- 
aged by  checking  or  season  cracks. 

4.  To  determine  and  utilize  the  proper  months  or  sea- 
sons to  girdle  or  fell  different  kinds  of  trees.    Bald  cy- 
press in  the  swamps  of  the  South  are  girdled  in  order  that 
they  may  die,  and  in  a  few  weeks  or  months  dry  out  and 
become  light  enough  to  float.    This  method  has  been  ex- 
tensively adopted  in  sections  where  it  is  the  only  prac- 
ticable one  by  which  the  timber  can  be  transported  to 
the  sawmills.    It  is  found,  however,  that  some  of  these 
girdled  trees  are  especially  attractive  to  several  species  of 
ambrosia  beetles  (Figs.  17  and  18),  round-headed  borers 
(Fig.  19)  and  timber  worms  (Fig.  20),  which  cause  seri- 
ous injury  to  the  sapwood  or  heartwood,  while  other  trees 
girdled  at  a  different  time  or  season  are  not  injured. 
This  suggested  to  the  writer  the  importance  of  experi- 
ments to  determine  the  proper  time  to  girdle  trees  to 
avoid  losses,  and  they  are  now  being  conducted  on  an 
extensive  scale  by  the  Forest  Service,  in  co-operation 
with  prominent  cypress  operators  in  different  sections 
of  the  cypress-growing  region.' 

SAPLINGS 

Saplings,  including  hickory  and  other  round  hoop- 
poles  and  similar  products,  are  subject  to  serious  injuries 
and  destruction  by  round  and  flat-headed  borers  (Fig. 
19),  and  certain  species  of  powder  post  borers  (Figs.  21 
and  22)  before  the  bark  and  wood  are  dead  or  dry,  and 
also  by  other  powder  post  borers  (Fig.  23)  after  they 


ENEMIES  OF  WOOD  83 

are  dried  and  seasoned.  The  conditions  favoring  attack 
by  the  former  class  are  those  resulting  from  leaving  the 
poles  in  piles  or  bundles  in  or  near  the  forest  for  a  few 
week's  during  the  season  of  insect  activity,  and  by  the 
latter  from  leaving  them  stored  in  one  place  for  several 
months. 

STAVE,  HEADING  AND  SHINGLE  BOLTS 

These  are  attacked  by  ambrosia  beetles  (Figs.  17  and 
18),  and  the  oak  timber  worm  (Fig  20,  a),  which,  as  has 
been  frequently  reported,  cause  serious  losses.  The  con- 
ditions favoring  attack  by  these  insects  are  similar  to 
those  mentioned  under  "Bound  Timber. "  The  insects 
may  enter  the  wood  before  the  bolts  are  cut  from  the  log 
or  afterward,  especially  if  the  bolts  are  left  in  moist, 
shady  places  in  the  woods,  in  close  piles  during  the  dan- 
ger period.  If  cut  during  the  warm  season,  the  bark 
should  be  removed  and  the  bolts  converted  into  the  small- 
est practicable  size  and  piled  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
facilitate  rapid  drying. 

UNSEASONED  PRODUCTS  IN  THE  ROUGH 

Freshly  sawn  hardwood,  placed  in  close  piles  during 
warm,  damp  weather  in  July  and  September,  presents 
especially  favorable  conditions  for  injury  by  ambrosia 
beetles  (Figs.  17,  a,  and  18,  a).  This  is  due  to  the  con- 
tinued moist  condition  of  such  material.  Heavy  two-inch 
or  three-inch  stuff  is  also  liable  to  attack  even  in  loose 
piles  with  lumber  or  cross  sticks.  An  example  of  the 
latter  was  found  in  a  valuable  lot  of  mahogany  lumber 
of  first  grade,  the  value  of  which  was  reduced  two-thirds 
by  injury  from  a  native  ambrosia  beetle.  Numerous  com- 
plaints have  been  received  from  different  sections  of  the 
country  of  this  class  of  injury  to  oak,  poplar,  gum  and 
other  hardwoods.  In  all  cases  it  is  the  moist  condition 
and  retarded  drying  of  the  lumber  which  induces  attack ; 
therefore,  any  method  which  will  provide  for  the  rapid 


84 


COOPERAGE 


drying  of  the  wood  before  or  after  piling  will  tend  to 
prevent  losses.  It  is  important  that  heavy  lumber  should, 
as  far  as  possible,  be  cut  in  the  winter  months  and  piled 
so  that  it  will  be  well  dried  out  before  the  middle  of 


FIG.  24.  WORK  OF  ROUND-HEADED  BORER,  Callidium  antennatum,  IN  WHITE 
PINE  BUCKET  STAVES  FROM  NEW  HAMPSHIRE:  a,  where  egg  was  depos- 
ited in  bark;  6,  larval  mine;  c,  pupal  cell;  d,  exit  in  bark;  e,  adult. 

March.  Square  timber,  stave  and  heading  bolts,  with 
the  bark  on,  often  suffer  from  injuries  by  flat  or  round- 
headed  borers,  hatching  from  eggs  deposited  in  the  bark 
of  the  logs  before  they  are  sawed  and  piled.  One  example 
of  serious  damage  and  loss  was  reported  in  which  white 


ENEMIES  OF  WOOD  85 

pine  staves  for  paint  buckets  and  other  small  wooden 
vessels,  which  had  been  sawed  from  small  logs,  and  the 
bark  left  on  the  edges,  were  attacked  by  a  round-headed 
borer,  the  adults  having  deposited  their  eggs  in  the  bark 
after  the  stock  was  sawn  and  piled.  The  character  of 
the  injury  is  shown  in  Fig.  24.  Another  example  was 
reported  from  a  manufacturer  in  the  South,  where  the 
pieces  of  lumber  which  had  a  strip  of  bark  on  one  side 
were  seriously  damaged  by  the  same  kind  of  borer,  the 
eggs  having  been  deposited  in  the  logs  before  sawing  or 
in  the  bark  after  the  lumber  was  piled.  If  the  eggs  are 
deposited  in  the  logs,  and  the  borers  have  entered  the 
inner  bark  or  the  wood  before  sawing,  they  may  continue 
their  work  regardless  of  methods  of  piling;  but  if  such 
lumber  is  cut  from  new  logs  and  placed  in  the  pile  while 
green,  with  the  bark  surface  up,  it  will  be  much  less 
liable  to  attack  than  if  piled  with  the  bark  down.  This 
liability  of  lumber  with  bark  edges  or  sides  to  be  attacked 
by  insects  suggests  the  importance  of  the  removal  of  the 
bark,  to  prevent  damage,  or,  if  this  is  not  practicable, 
the  lumber  with  the  bark  on  the  sides  should  be  piled 
in  open,  loose  piles  with  the  bark  up,  while  that  with  the 
bark  on  the  redges  should  be  placed  on  the  outer  edge 
of  the  piles,  exposed  to  the  light  and  air.  A  moist  con- 
dition of  lumber  and  square  timber,  such  as  results  from 
close  or  solid  piles,  with  the  bottom  layers  on  the  ground 
or  on  a  foundation  of  old  decaying  logs  or  near  decaying 
stumps  and  logs,  offers  especially  favorable  conditions 
for  the  attack  of  white  ants. 

SEASONED  PEODUCTS  IN   THE  BOUGH 

Seasoned  or  dry  timber  in  stacks  or  storage  is  liable 
to  injury  by  powder  post  borers.  (Fig.  23.)  The  con- 
ditions favoring  attack  are:  (1)  The  presence  of  a  large 
proportion  of  sapwood,  as  in  hickory,  ash,  and  similar 


86  COOPERAGE 

woods;  (2)  material  which  is  two  or  more  years  old,  or 
that  which  has  been  kept  in  one  place  for  a  long  time; 
(3)  access  to  old  infested  material.  Therefore,  such  stock 
should  be  frequently  examined  for  evidence  of  the  pres- 
ence of  these  insects.  This  is  always  indicated  by  fine, 
flour-like  powder  on  or  beneath  the  piles,  or  otherwise 
associated  with  such  material.  All  infested  material 
should  be  at  once  removed  and  the  infested  parts  de- 
stroyed by  burning. 

DKY  COOPEKAGE  STOCK  AND  WOODEN  TBUSS  HOOPS 

These  are  especially  liable  to  attack  and  serious  injury 
by  powder  post  borers  (Fig.  23),  under  the  same  or  sim- 
ilar conditions  as  the  preceding. 

STAVES  AND  HEADS  OF  BARBELS  CONTAINING  ALCOHOLIC  LIQUIDS 

These  are  liable  to  attack  by  ambrosia  beetles  (Figs. 
17,  a  and  18,  a),  which  are  attracted  by  the  moist  condition 
and  possibly  by  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  wood,  resembling 
that  of  dying  sapwood  of  trees  and  logs,  which  is  their 
normal  breeding  place.  There  are  many  examples  on 
record  of  serious  losses  of  liquors  from  leakage  caused 
by  the  beetles  boring  through  the  staves  and  heads  of 
the  barrels  and  casks  in  cellars  and  storerooms.  The 
condition,  in  addition  to  the  moisture  of  the  wood,  which 
is  favorable  for  the  presence  of  the  beetles,  is  proximity 
to  their  breeding  places,  such  as  the  trunks  and  stumps 
of  recently  felled  or  dying  oak,  maple  and  other  hardwood 
or  deciduous  trees ;  lumber  yards,  sawmills,  freshly  cut 
cordwood,  from  living  or  dead  trees,  and  forests  of  hard- 
wood timber.  Under  such  conditions  the  beetles  occur 
in  great  numbers,  and  if  the  storerooms  and  cellars  in* 
which  the  barrels  are  kept  stored  are  damp,  poorly  venti- 
lated, and  readily  accessible  to  them,  serious  injury  is 
almost  certain  to  follow. 


SECTION  III 


FOREST   FIRES 


FOREST   FIRES 


FIRES   THE   GREATEST   ENEMY  OF   FORESTS 


GENEKAL   EEMAEKS 

Of  the  many  destructive  agencies  at  work  in  the  forests 
of  the  United  States,  fire  holds  first  place,  and  the  loss 
which  it  inflicts  equals,  if  it  does  not  surpass,  that  from 
all  other  causes  combined.  Insect  hordes  occasionally 
destroy  large  areas  of  valuable  forest  growth;  wasteful 
and  short-sighted  lumbering  methods,  resulting  from  in- 


FIG.  25.     VIEW  OF  LAND  BURNED  OVER  EVERY  YEAR. 


90  COOPEEAGE 

volved  economic  conditions,  have  brought  about  the  rapid 
conversion  of  much  of  the  finest  timberlands  into  unpro- 
ductive barrens;  and  in  the  far  West,  excessive  and 
unrestricted  grazing  has  seriously  reduced  the  regenerat- 
ing power  of  the  forest,  and  exposed  vast  areas  to  injury 
by  flood  and  erosion.  But  great  as  is  the  damage  from 
these  causes,  compared  with  fire  they  are  of  secondary 
importance.  Further,  it  is  to  the  fires  which  usually 
precede,  accompany,  or  follow  these  other  agencies  that 
their  most  serious  consequences  are  often  due.  Inject 
attacks  often  follow  when  fire  has  killed  or  reduced  the 
vitality  of  timber ;  the  cut-over  timber  lands  of  the  Great 
Lakes  and  other  regions  would  not  present  such  a  dis- 
couraging aspect  had  not  fire  killed  the  seed  trees  and 
young  growth  (see  Fig.  25),  which  otherwise  would  have 
survived  even  the  most  pernicious  logging  enterprises; 
and  in  the  forests  of  the  West  fire  again  is  a  potent  source 
of  difficulty  in  adjusting  the  conflicting  claims  of  the 
grazing,  timber,  and  water  interests. 

SOME  ESTIMATES  OP  LOSSES  FROM  FIEE 

Certain  as  it  is  that  fire  is  the  greatest  of  forest  evils, 
there  exists  comparatively  little  accurate  knowledge  on 
which  to  base  an  estimate  of  the  total  loss  from  this 
source.  This  is  due,  not  to  lack  of  interest  so  much  as  to 
the  immensity  of  the  field,  and  the  complex  character  of 
the  problem  which  the  attempt  to  make  such  an  estimate 
presents.  Losses  of  mill  and  logging  machinery,  lumber, 
cordwood,  merchantable  standing  timber,  and  other  prop- 
erty of  staple  market  value  can  be  closely  determined 
by  individual  losers ;  but  when  attempts  are  made  to  com- 
bine even  these  definite  losses  for  a  State,  or  for  the 
United  States,  the  result  becomes  a  rough  estimate,  if  not 
a  matter  of  mere  conjecture.  Nevertheless,  it  is  indis- 
putable that  these  losses  are  enormous,  and  that,  for  the 


FOBEST    FIRES  91 

country  as  a  whole,  they  run  high  into  the  millions.  No 
less  serious,  though  incapable  of  money  valuation,  is  the 
indirect  loss  due  to  the  destruction  of  young  growth, 
which  is  to  form  our  future  forests.  To  this  must  be 
added  the  injury  to  the  forest  soil,  caused  by  the  burning 
out  of  the  vegetable  matter,  indispensable  to  healthy  tree 


FIG.  26.    EFFECTS  OF  A  FOREST  FIRE. 

growth.  (See  Fig.  26.)  The  most  conservative  estimates 
put  the  average  annual  loss  from  forest  fires  at  above 
$25,000,000.  More  exact  estimates  are  available  for  lim- 
ited regions.  For  example,  a  careful  estimate  made  on 
the  ground  after  the  terrific  Washington  and  Oregon  fires 
of  1902  showed  a  loss  in  nine  days  of  $12,000,000  worth 


92  COOPEEAGE 

of  forest  property.  New  York  State  in  the  spring  of 
1903  suffered  from  unusually  severe  fires  in  the  Adiron- 
dacks,  involving  a  direct  loss  estimated  at  $3,500,000,  in 
addition  to  a  known  expense  for  fire  fighting  of  $175,000. 

LOSSES  FKOM  FIRE  WHICH  ABE  NOT  USUALLY  CONSIDERED 

The  severest  consequences  do  not  result  from  these 
great  conflagrations,  which  partake  of  the  nature  of 
national  calamities.  Beyond  question  it  is  the  smaller, 
unnoted  fires  which  in  the  aggregate  inflict  the  most 
serious  damage  upon  the  forests  of  the  United  States. 
And  this  damage  is  for  the  most  part  of  a  kind  from  the 
very  nature  of  the  case  incapable  of  exact  calculation. 
In  the  first  place,  much  fine  timber  in  this  country  has 
at  present  no  money  value  because  it  is  not  now  acces- 
sible. In  the  second  place,  the  injury  which  the  forest 
suffers  is  far  greater  than  that  covered  by  the  stumpage 
value  of  the  standing  merchantable  timber.  Generally 
the  lumberman  is  immediately  concerned  only  with  that 
part  of  the  fire  loss  which  includes  the  destruction  of 
timber  and  lumber  that  he  can  sell,  and  of  milling  or 
logging  property  in  the  woods.  The  annihilation  of 
young  growth,  and  the  lowering  of  the  forest's  water  con- 
serving and  regenerative  powers,  do  not  appear  in  the 
profit  and  loss  column  of  his  books.  From  the  point  of 
view  of  the  public  interest,  the  effect  of  fires  on  forest 
reproduction  and  water  conservation  is  far  more  impor- 
tant than  the  destruction  of  mature  timber.  Yet  the  im- 
possibility of  even  approximately  determining  the  former 
losses  makes  them  appear  less  real.  Save  in  limited 
regions,  young  forest  growth  has  no  recognized  value; 
consequently  its  destruction  by  fire  is  not  an  appreciated 
financial  loss.  In  view  of  the  growing  scarcity  of  timber, 
and  of  the  almost  inevitable  changes  in  the  general  field 
of  forestry,  it  is  safe  to  prophesy  that  in  the  near  future 


FOREST   FIEES  93 

the  value  of  young  growth  will  be  definitely  recognized. 
Nevertheless,  lumbermen  have  not  as  yet  generally  rec- 
ognized it  nor  taken  steps  to  encourage  or  protect  such 
growth.  (Fig.  52.) 

CONDITIONS  WHICH   AFFECT  FIEE   LOSSES 

The  extent  to  which  lumbering  interests  suffer  from 
fire  depends  largely  on  the  region  in  which  they  conduct 
their  operations.  Broad  statements  concerning  this  are 
subject  to  exceptions,  yet  in  general  it  is  true  that  Pacific 
Coast  lumbermen  suffer  most,  and  those  in  the  Southern 
hardwoods  least,  while  the  losses  of  operators  in  the 
Lake  States  and  the  Northeast  fall  between  the  two.  The 
Pacific  Coast  lumber  manufacturer  is  the  heaviest  loser, 
not  only  because  the  fires  are  more  severe,  but  also  be- 
cause his  mills  and  yards  are  located  in  the  heart  of  the 
forest,  since  he  cannot  "drive"  the  streams.  In  Cal- 
ifornia and  eastward,  surface  fires  prevail  in  the  virgin 
forests,  but  rarely  destroy  extensive  stands  of  timber, 
although  individual  trees  are  severely  injured  and 
killed.  In  the  Northeast  and  Great  Lakes  States  fires 
commonly  do  not  reach  their  maximum  of  injury  until  the 
lumberman  has  left ;  hence,  he  is  not  so  great  a  sufferer. 
In  the  Southern  pineries  the  frequently  occurring  grass 
fires  are  rarely  severe  and  are  seldom  troublesome  to  the 
lumberman.  Old  turpentine  orchards,  where  the  boxes 
and  excoriated  surfaces  expose  the  trees  to  fire  injury, 
are  the  exception.  Such  timber,  however,  is  usually  pur- 
chased at  a  low  figure  and  cut  before  fire  does  it  material 
damage. 

ERRONEOUS  IDEAS  CONCERNING  EFFECTS  OF   FIRES 

The  effect  of  surface  and  brush  fires  in  large  timber  is 
more  serious  than  generally  supposed.  The  prevailing 
opinion  is  that  mature  timber  is  not  injured  by  such  fires, 
and  this  has  created  among  lumbermen  a  feeling  of  in- 


94 


COOPEEAGE 


difference  to  their  occurrence.  Few  fires  in  a  forest  are 
so  slight  as  to  produce  no  ill  effects.  Though  most  of  the 
trees  may  escape  with  only  a  slight  blackening  or  char- 
ring of  the  bark,  there  are  inevitably  others  which  are 


FIG.  27.     BLACK  GUM  STILL  ALIVE,  THOUGH  BURNED  TO  A  SHELL.   Damage 

done  by  a  fire. 


killed  or  injured  at  the  base  by  the  burning  of  brush  and 
debris  accumulated  about  the  trunk,  or  by  the  fire  catch- 
ing in  a  break  in  the  bark.  (See  Fig.  27.)  Each  successive 
fire  adds  its  percentage  of  injury,  while  all  damaged  trees 


FOREST   FIEES  95 

are  rendered  less  wind  firm.  Even  in  the  Southern  pines, 
where  the  fire  injury  is  near  the  minimum,  the  cumulative 
damage  is  surprisingly  great.  The  Bureau  of  Forestry 
at  Washington,  D.  C.,  have  obtained  figures  which  show 
that  in  a  turpentine  orchard  of  Florida  long-leaf  pine, 
abandoned  for  five  years,  thirty-three  per  cent,  of  the 
trees  above  a  diameter  of  one  inch  were  found  dead  or 
down,  mainly  as  a  result  of  a  fire,  while  only  one-half  of 
one  per  cent,  of  the  remaining  boxed  trees  were  unburned. 
The  damage  in  unboxed  long-leaf  pine  of  the  same  region 
was  much  less  serious,  eighty-two  per  cent,  of  the  stand 
being  sound.  Throughout  California  the  opinion  so 
largely  prevails  that  fires  in  virgin  timber  are  compar- 
atively harmless,  that  lumbermen  allow  them  to  run  un- 
less they  threaten  their  mills  or  are  likely  to  spread  to 
"slashings,"  in  dangerous  proximity  to  valuable  timber. 
This,  too,  in  face  of  the  fact  that  nothing  is  more  notice- 
able in  the  Sierra  forests  that  the  burned-out  bases  of 
many  of  the  finest  sugar  and  yellow  pines.  Figures  ob- 
tained in  the  logging  camps  of  a  lumber  company  in 
Tehama  County,  Cal.,  show  that  the  "long-butting"  ne- 
cessitated by  the  burns  in  the  base  logs  amounts  to  about 
4%  per  cent,  of  the  total  cut,  which  is  a  direct  loss  of 
this  amount.  This  does  not  include  the  loss  in  high 
stumps,  where  the  cut  is  made  above  the  burn,  nor  allow 
for  the  deduction  from  the  actual  scale  reading  in  par- 
tially burned-out  logs,  nor  for  the  inferior  lumber  near 
the  burns,  where  the  heat  has  hardened  the  pitch.  In 
addition  to  this,  many  trees  have  burned  down  or  have 
been  thrown  by  wind  as  a  consequence  of  the  fire. 

VIEWS  OF  LUMBERMEN  CONCERNING  FOREST  FIRES 

The  general  attitude  of  lumbermen  toward  forest  fires 
is  one  of  hopelessness,  coupled  in  a  measure  with  indif- 
ference. Fires  were  not  unknown  prior  to  the  days  of 


96  COOPERAGE 

settlement,  but  since  .the  commercial  exploitation  of  the 
forests  began  they  have  increased  in  number  and  severity, 
until  now  they  are  regarded  as  inevitable.  Considering 
the  many  causes  from  which  forest  fires  spring,  the  dif- 
ficulty of  quickly  locating  and  suppressing  them  in  the 
incipient  stages,  and  the  tremendous  and  often  impos- 
sible task  of  stopping  a  fire  when  it  has  gained  full  head- 
way, it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  the  lumberman  has 
taken  rather  a  hopeless  view  of  the  matter.  Furthermore, 
fire-fighting  and  even  crude  measures  of  protection  re- 
quire an  outlay  which  could  not  have  been  borne  during 
the  earlier  lumbering  period.  There  has  been,  too,  an  un- 
fulfilled State  duty,  which  has  added  to  the  lumberman's 
burden.  Large  sums  raised  by  taxes  on  forest  lands 
have  been  going  into  the  State  treasuries,  yet  until  very 
recent  years  no  intelligent  effort  has  been  made  to  assist 
timber  owners  to  protect  their  holdings.  While  lumber- 
men should  have  done  more  for  themselves,  the  laws 
which  should  have  given  them  encouragement  and  assist- 
ance have  been  wanting  or  totally  inadequate.  The  atti- 
tude of  indifference  which  has  been  shown  by  lumbermen 
in  many  instances  is  far  less  excusable  than  their  belief 
in  the  impossibility  of  fire  protection.  Eealizing  the  fire 
danger,  they  have  deliberately  ignored  all  sides  of  the 
question  save  that  of  the  most  temporary,  and  have  taken 
the  best  from  the  land  and  abandoned  the  rest  to  destruc- 
tion by  fires,  which  often  threatened  or  destroyed  the 
adjoining  property  of  others.  The  only  justification  for 
this  has  been  the  economic  conditions  which  have  made 
the  suppression  of  fire  incompatible  with  profitable  lum- 
bering. 

CHANGED  CONDITIONS 

Before  the  awakening  to  the  needs  and  possibilities  of 
forestry,  and  when  the  forests  were  considered  inexhaust- 
ible, indifference  and  inaction  when  forest  fires  occurred 


FOREST    FIRES  97 

was  not  unnatural.  These  conditions,  however,  are  now  of 
the  past.  The  end  of  the  virgin  timber  supply  is  in  sight, 
and  the  improved  tone  of  the  lumber  market  is  enabling 
lumbermen  to  dispose  of  inferior  material,  and  to  realize 
better  prices  for  all  grades.  These  changes  are  making 
it  profitable  for  timber  owners  to  cut  more  conservatively, 
and  to  hold  their  land  for  future  timber  production.  In 
pursuing  such  a  policy,  fire  protection  and  the  systematic 
disposal  of  ' l  slash "  by  methods  which  will  result  in  the 
minimum  of  injury  to  young  growth  and  seed  trees  must 
follow.  It  is  most  encouraging  that  many  large  lumber 
concerns,  especially  in  the  West,  are  favoring  the  adop- 
tion of  such  a  policy,  and  in  a  few  cases  are  putting  it 
into  practice.  In  short,  lumbermen  are  beginning  seri- 
ously to  consider  the  advantages  of  long-continued  man- 
agement of  timber  lands,  in  place  of  the  policy  of  tem- 
porary speculative  holdings,  upon  which  their  operations 
have  hitherto  been  based.  With  this  change  in  general 
management  must  come  an  entirely  altered  sentiment 
toward  forest  fires.  They  can  no  longer  be  ignored,  but 
must  be  intelligently  and  systematically  guarded  against. 

FIRE  PROTECTION  ON  PRIVATE  LANDS 

Without  adequate  fire  protection  the  practice  of  for- 
estry on  private  timber  lands  will  not  give  the  desired 
results.  The  leaving  of  seed  trees  and  modified  lumber- 
ing methods  for  the  purpose  of  securing  natural  repro- 
duction, which  is  liable  to  ultimate  destruction  by  fire, 
appeals  neither  to  the  lumberman  nor  to  the  forester. 
Even  assuming  a  recognized  market  value  for  young 
growth,  there  can  be  little  incentive  for  encouraging  or 
holding  it  as  long  as  a  constant  fire  menace  remains; 
hence  it  follows  that  fire  protection  is  a  fundamental 
necessity  in  all  plans  for  forest  management  on  private 
holdings. 


98  COOPEEAGE 

Definite  plans  for  fire  protection  should  precede  or  ac- 
company all  working  plans  for  forest  lands,  and  in  most 
cases  fire  plans  alone  will  give  results  which  will  fully 
justify  their  application.  It  is  surprising  that  individual 
timber  owners  have  done  so  little  for  themselves  in  mat- 
ters of  fire  protection,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
it  is  largely  a  local  problem,  and  can  be  most  satisfacto- 
rily dealt  with  as  such.  Adequate  protection  is  undeniably 
a  complex  and  difficult  task.  It  is,  however,  no  greater 
than  many  of  the  logging,  milling  and  transportation 
difficulties  which  have  been  successfully  surmounted.  It 
has  been  neglected  merely  because  financial  success  has 
not  been  dependent  upon  it.  The  enterprise  and  ingenu- 
ity of  American  lumbermen  is  world  renowned.  For  the 
cheap  and  rapid  manufacture  of  lumber,  cooperage  ma- 
terial, etc.,  they  have  developed  marvellous  mechanical 
devices.  But  in  matters  of  fire  protection  they  are  still 
little  further  advanced  than  were  the  pioneers  of  the 
industry.  Indeed,  by  opening  up  the  forests  and  leaving 
large  quantities  of  inflammable  debris,  they  have  rather 
increased  the  fire  danger.  As  it  was  fifty  years  ago,  so 
it  is  to-day.  No  attention  is  paid  to  fires  until  they  reach 
dangerous  proportions;  then  they  are  fought  with  char- 
acteristic American  energy.  The  mills  are  often  shut 
down,  all  available  men  are  employed  to  fight  the  flames, 
and  the  fire  is  usually  controlled,  but  .at  great  expense. 
The  more  rational  and  business-like  and  in  the  end  the 
more  economical  method,  systematic  preventive  measures 
and  preparation  for  promptly  extinguishing  small  fires, 
has  seldom  been  employed. 

NEW  DEPARTURES  IN  DEALING  WITH  THE  FIRE  PROBLEM 

In  keeping  with  the  changed  conditions  already  men- 
tioned, the  result  of  which  must  be  to  compel  a  departure 
from  the  old  methods,  made  possible  by  an  abundance  of 


FOREST    FIRES  99 

timber,  there  has  of  late  been  evinced  a  growing  dispo- 
sition to  introduce  fire  protection  on  forest  lands.  This 
has  taken  the  form  in  some  cases  of  actual  attempts  to 
prevent  fire  from  running  through  mature  timber,  or 
young  growth  and  to  reduce  the  fire  danger  by  carefully 
burning  "slash."  The  greatest  difficulty  at  present  is 
lack  of  knowledge  of  how  to  attain  these  ends. 

BURNING  SLASH  OR  REFUSE 

Several  lumber  companies  in  various  regions  have  at- 
tempted to  burn  the  "slash"  on  cut-over  land,  but  have 
not  developed  a  wholly  successful  system.  The  owner  of 
an  enormous  tract  of  virgin  timber  in  Northern  Cali- 
fornia has  employed  men  to  rake  away  the  debris  from 
the  larger  sugar  and  yellow  pines,  and  to  throw  fresh  dirt 
into  the  cavities  previously  burned  in  the  bases  of  the 
trunks.  The  same  plan  has  been  tried  on  a  small  area 
of  long-leaf  pine  near  Ocilla,  Ga.  Such  a  procedure  will 
give  temporary  protection  from  surface  fires,  but  it  leaves 
all  young  growth  open  to  destruction  and  does  not  get 
at  the  root  of  the  evil.  The  idea  has  hitherto  prevailed 
that  in  order  to  burn  "slash"  successfully  the  tops  must 
be  lopped  and  the  limbs  and  other  debris  piled.  This  has 
made  the  process  too  expensive  for  general  adoption. 
As  to  burning  "slash"  as  it  lies,  it  has  been  proven  that 
by  selecting  favorable  weather  conditions  and  burning 
in  small  blocks  or  broad  lines  the  fires  can  be  easily  con- 
trolled. Promising  clumps  of  young  growth  and  seed 
trees  will  be  protected  by  clearing  around  them  before 
the  fires  are  started.  Under  no  condition  should  there 
be  indiscriminate  firing  of  slash,  regardless  of  method, 
and  without  competent  supervision. 

PLAN  FOR  PROTECTING  MATURE  TIMBER 

On  the  California  timber  lands  of  a  large  match  com- 
pany, a  plan  of  fire  protection,  prepared  by  the  Bureau 


100  COOPERAGE 

of  Forestry,  was  in  operation  during  the  year  1904.  The 
results  at  the  close  of  the  season  were  very  satisfactory. 
No  serious  fires  occurred,  a  marked  contrast  to  the  record 
of  recent  years,  prior  to  the  application  of  the  plan.  In 
addition  to  an  annual  systematized  burning  of  the  slash 
on  the  land  logged  during  the  year,  the  plan  provides 
for  a  system  of  trails  and  telephone  lines,  whereby  all 
fires  may  be  reported  and  reached  promptly,  a  lookout 
station  at  a  commanding  point  of  view,  a  regular  patrol 
during  the  dry  season,  the  posting  of  warning  notices, 
the  storing  of  fire-fighting  tools  at  convenient  points,  and 
the  working  up  of  an  anti-fire  sentiment  among  employees 
and  local  inhabitants.  With  the  growing  desire  for  fire 
protection,  the  general  practices  here  found  successful 
should,  with  modifications  to  suit  local  requirements,  find 
application  elsewhere. 

THE  QUESTION  OF  SECOND  GROWTH 

Assuming  that  the  lumberman  finds  it  advisable  to  pro- 
tect his  mature  timber  and  burn  his  slash,  the  question 
arises,  can  he  afford  to  protect  the  young  growth  on  the 
cut-over  land,  or  to  hold  the  land  for  the  second  crop! 
It  is  an  undeniable  fact  that  young  forest  growth  in  gen- 
eral has  no  sale  value,  although  in  the  eyes  of  the  forester 
its  prospective  value  is  considerable.  (See  Fig.  52.)  It 
thus  follows  that  under  the  present  system  of  taxing 
forest  lands,  and  in  the  face  of  a  constant  fire  danger, 
there  is  little  encouragement  for  lumbermen  to  hold  sec- 
ond growth  or  to  invest  money  in  its  protection.  Despite 
these  discouraging  facts,  many  lumbermen  are  retaining 
their  cut-over  lands  and  manifest  a  desire  to  preserve 
the  second  growth.  But  no  active  measures  to  protect 
it  have  been  taken  except  in  a  few  cases,  such  as  those 
just  mentioned.  It  is  not  so  much  the  uncertainty  of 
returns,  as  the  danger  that  all  will  be  lost  by  fire,  that  pre- 


FOEEST    FIBES 


vents  the  general  retention  of  lands  more  suitable  for 
timber  production  than  for  agriculture. 


FOREST   FIRES 


THEIK  CAUSE  AND  PKEVENTION 

ONE  of  the  chief  causes  of  disastrous  forest  fires  (see 
Fig.  26)  lies  in  the  result  of  protracted  drought.  The 
forest  becomes  inflammable.  Thus  on  cut-over  lands  the 
debris  left  after  lumbering  is  in  condition  to  catch  fire 
like  tinder  and  to  spread  it  almost  like  a  powder  maga- 
zine. Every  chance  spark  left  unextinguished  by  smoker 
or  camper,  every  glowing  cinder  from  locomotive  or 
brush-burner's  fire,  carries  the  potentiality  of  a  great  con- 
flagration. During  the  season  when  fishermen  and  hunt- 
ers are  enjoying  their  sport,  many  build  camp-fires  and 
smudges  in  every  direction,  and  proceed  on  their  way 
without  properly  extinguishing  them.  Under  such  con- 
ditions many  incipient  forest  fires  are,  and  always  will 
be  inevitable.  The  only  hope  of  preventing  devastation 
is  through  systematic  watchfulness  to  extinguish  every 
little  blaze  before  it  has  time  to  gather  headway.  In  gen- 
eral these  fires  burn  rapidly,  owing  to  the  inflammable 
condition  of  the  forest.  They  are  either  "  crown, "  "  sur- 
face "  or  "ground,"  the  type  of  fire  varying  with  the 
character  of  the  forest  and  the  strength  of  the  wind. 
Usually  fires  begin  on  the  surface,  spreading  among  the 
leaves  and  dead  branches.  Where  deep,  dry  duff  is  en- 
countered, combustion  works  to  the  bottom  of  the  half 
peaty  mass,  stealing  along,  sometimes  without  much  evi- 
dence, above  ground,  possible  even  days  or  weeks,  later 
to  develop  into  a  ' '  surface  "  or  "  crown  fire ' '  under  favor- 
able conditions.  Among  conifers,  with  their  inflammable 


COOPERAGE 


foliage,  surface  fires  frequently  mount  to  the  tops  of  the 
trees,  and  thus  become  "  crown  fires."  This  is  the  most 
dangerous  and  unmanageable  form  of  fire,  on  account  of 
the  great  surface  offered  to  combustion,  and  also  because 
of  the  powerful  draft  caused  by  the  rising  of  the  heated 
air,  which  fans  the  flames  to  uncontrollable  fury.  Such 
fires  travel  with  remarkable  speed.  Culpable  careless- 
ness is  responsible  for  the  largest  part  of  our  forest  fires, 
deliberate  incendiarism  for  no  small  number,  and  un- 
avoidable accident  for  a  few.  Inexcusable  negligence  and 
disregard  of  legal  requirements  and  the  rights  of  adjoin- 
ing property  have  been  charged  against  the  railroads. 
Fully  one-half  of  the  fires  due  to  carelessness  are  caused 
by  the  locomotive.  A  good  many  fires  are  also  set  by 
logging  railways.  The  laws  require  the  equipment  of 
locomotives  with  spark  arresters  and  the  observance  of 
other  precautions  against  fires.  Should  the  railroads  be 
compelled  to  adopt  these  safeguards,  much  loss  would  be 
averted.  The  railroads  themselves  will  be  heavy  suffer- 
ers in  the  long  run  from  the  devastation  for  which  they 
are  so  largely  responsible.  Next  to  railroads,  "fallow- 
ing," or  the  clearing  of  land,  by  burning  debris  left  after 
lumbering,  is  probably  the  most  prolific  source  of  fires. 
As  usual,  many  fires  are  started  through  the  carelessness 
of  smokers.  Smudges  and  camp-fires  imperfectly  ex- 
tinguished cause  their  full  share  of  damage.  The  forms 
of  neglect  or  carelessness  outlined  above  are  responsible 
for  a  very  large  percentage  of  damage  done. 

METHODS  OF  FIGHTING  SAME 

The  most  effective  fighting  against  forest  fires  can  be 
done  from  daybreak  until  about  nine  o  'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing. The  fires  are  usually  much  deadened  at  this  time 
of  day,  and  the  fighters  should  take  advantage  of  this 
fact,  resting  or  acting  chiefly  on  the  defensive  in  the 


FOEEST    FIRES  103 

middle  of  the  day,  and  renewing  the  attack  toward  eve- 
ning, when  the  fires  again  lose  some  of  their  aggressive- 
ness. Surface  fires  can  be  checked  by  raking  away  the 
litter  on  the  forest  floor  in  a  path  a  few  feet  wide,  which 
serves  as  a  line  of  defense  from  which  the  fire  can  be 
fought  back  as  it  approaches.  Where  water  can  be  ob- 
tained the  path  should  be  thoroughly  wet  down.  Shovel- 
fuls of  sand  dashed  upon  the  blazing  wood  will  also  have 
a  deadening  effect,  and  burning  grass  in  the  clearings 
can  be  thrashed  out  with  the  bushy  top  of  a  young  spruce 
or  balsam,  or  a  few  furrows  should  be  turned  with  a 
plough  across  the  track  of  the  fire.  Usually  the  presence 
of  duff  makes  it  necessary  to  dig  a  trench  from  one  to 
four  feet  wide  down  to  the  mineral  soil,  and  completely 
encircling  the  fire.  The  roots  should  be  cut  through  with 
axes  and  mattocks,  and  the  mass  of  peaty  material 
chopped  up  and  shovelled  out  and  sand  or  dirt  heaped 
against  the  outer  side  of  the  trench,  to  protect  the  duff 
from  sparks  and  heat.  When  the  fire  burns  through  the 
inner  side,  where  these  methods  fail  or  cannot  be  used, 
back-firing  should  be  resorted  to.  Trenches  should  be 
dug  from  two  to  four  feet  wide,  and  the  fire  applied  to 
the  side  next  the  forest  fire.  If  the  trenches  can  be  de- 
fended successfully  for  a  short  time,  the  fires  thus  set 
will  burn  a  distance  back  from  the  trench,  thus  clearing 
away  much  of  the  combustible  matter  and  robbing  the 
conflagration  of  its  energy  when  the  two  lines  of  fire  meet. 
This  is  a  very  effective  method  of  fighting  forest  fires, 
but  extreme  caution  is  necessary  in  its  use. 


SECTION    FV 


SAWS- 


SAWS 


GENEKAL   SAW   INSTRUCTIONS 

THE  successful  fitting  of  saws  is  directly  dependent 
upon  these  two  essentials :  a  well-equipped  filing  room  and 
a  capable  saw-filer,  possessed  of  a  moderate  amount  of 
"horse  sense "  in  charge  of  it.  Saws  do  not  run  or  fit 
themselves,  and  they  require  the  proper  amount  of  care 
and  attention  in  order  that  they  may  produce  a  maximum 
quantity  and  improved  quality  of  output  on  a  minimum 
saw  kerf.  Therefore,  it  is  an  unwise  economy  that  does 
not  provide  both  essentials.  And  the  most  successful 
mill  and  factory  operators  of  to-day  consider  it  good 
practice  and  a  profitable  investment  to  supply  every  tool 
or  appliance  calculated  to  facilitate  the  filer 's  work. 

Every  operator  of  a  cooperage  plant  has  more  or  less 
of  a  substantial  investment  in  factory  and  saws.  His 
profits  depend  largely  upon  his  finished  product  being 
well  manufactured  and  with  the  least  amount  of  waste 
possible.  This  cannot  be  accomplished  unless  his  sawing 
equipment  receives  constant  care  and  attention.  He 
spends  money  for  saws  which  for  some  operators  run 
finely  and  last  for  years,  until  worn  out,  while  for  others 
they  run  indifferently  and  only  last  for  as  many  weeks, 
when  they  are  utterly  worthless  from  cracks  or  other 
defective  conditions,  caused  by  lack  of  proper  care  and 
in  some  instances  by  gross  carelessness ;  and  the  product 
turned  out  is  of  an  indifferent  quality,  while  the  per- 
centage of  waste  is  enormous.  This  is  probably  the  sug- 
gestion of  "no  swage, "  "no  sharpener, "  "irregular  ten- 
sioning, ' '  etc. ;  or  if  such  tools  are  in  use,  they  are  indif- 


108  COOPERAGE 

ferently  used,  are  defective,  out  of  repair,  or  inefficient 
in  operation.  It  is  manifestly  true  that  not  all  mill  men 
can  carry  on  their  business  with  equal  success  and  profit, 
but  it  is  a  self-evident  truth  to  the  well-informed  that 
the  best  results  obtainable  from  saws  are  contingent  upon 
their  being  properly  sharpened,  swaged,  tensioned,  etc. ; 
results  which  are  obtainable  only  by  close  attention  to 
details  in  the  operation  of  fitting  a  saw  for  its  particular 
duty. 

SAW-FITTING    NOT    A   MYSTERIOUS    PEOCESS 

After  all,  saw-fitting  is  a  work  in  which  the  little  things 
count  more  than  anything  else,  and  the  artistic  work  on 
the  part  of  the  saw  is  due  more  to  the  amount  of  atten- 
tion given  to  all  the  little  points  in  gumming,  filing,  etc., 
than  to  any  mysterious  superiority  in  skill.  It  is  superi- 
ority in  a  way,  of  course,  but  it  is  simply  thorough  exer- 
cise of  care  and  intelligence  in  one's  duty.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  way  of  mystery  in  the  art  of  saw-fitting 
nor  about  a  saw,  either.  Every  subject  is  comparatively 
easy  of  analysis  and  every  fault  has  a  cure,  and  most  of 
them  will  disappear  themselves  if  enough  attention  is 
given  to  gumming  each  tooth  alike  and  in  making  every 
tooth  cut  exactly  like  the  preceding  one.  Any  man  who 
has  seen  a  reasonable  amount  of  service  in  and  around 
a  stave  or  heading  mill ;  who  has  labored  conscientiously 
and  made  good  use  of  the  "gray  matter "  he  has  been 
endowed  with  during  such  service;  who  can  recognize 
well-manufactured  stock  when  he  sees  it,  and  is  possessed 
of  a  reasonable  amount  of  skill  in  the  handling  of  tools, 
and  with  intelligence  enough  to  be  entrusted  with  the  care 
of  saws,  can  turn  out  a  good,  satisfactory  job  of  saw- 
filing  if  he  will  only  use  fair  judgment  and  take  the  pains 
to  follow  up  these  details  connected  with  his  work.  One 
of  the  most  important  points  in  connection  with  effective 


SAWS  109 

saw-fitting,  no  matter  whether  it  is  cylinder,  pendulum, 
or  any  other  kind  of  saw,  is  to  keep  the  teeth  at  the  same 
width,  and  the  throats  or  gullets  of  the  same  uniform 
depth,  so  that  the  saw  is  in  perfect  running  balance.  The 
higher  the  speed  of  the  saw,  the  more  important  this  mat- 
ter of  balance  becomes,  and  it  is  always  of  more  conse- 
quence than  the  average  saw-filer  gives  it  credit  for  being. 
Quite  frequently  a  saw  may  run  badly,  shake  and  trem- 
ble, and  jerk  in  the  cut,  doing  its  work  unevenly,  so  that  it 
leaves  heavy  ridges  on  the  stock  and  makes  a  waste  of 
timber,  when  the  main  trouble  is  lack  of  balance.  The 
heavier  the  saw,  the  less  likelihood  there  is  of  its  growing 
shaky  when  it  is  only  a  little  out  of  balance,  but  with  the 
modern  tendency  to  operate  thin  saws  in  order  to  lessen 
the  waste  in  saw  kerf,  and  the  general  disposition  to  run 
them  at  high  speed,  it  becomes  imperative  to  have  them 
perfectly  balanced.  The  trouble  is  the  average  saw-filer 
does  not  realize  that  a  little  difference  in  gumming  or  a 
little  difference  in  the  width  of  the  teeth  may  affect  the 
balance  of  the  saw.  When  one  gets  down  to  the  real  art 
of  saw-filing,  it  is  not  so  much  a  matter  of  that  peculiar 
style  of  tooth  or  of  getting  the  teeth  so  that  they  will  cut, 
but  it  occurs  to  us  that  the  important  thing,  after  all,  is 
to  get  them  to  cut  smoothly.  This  they  will  not  do,  of 
course,  if  the  saw  is  out  of  balance ;  but  that  is  only  one 
defect,  and  there  are  many  others.  Too  much  time  is 
often  wasted  in  the  study  of  design  of  the  tooth,  and  not 
enough  given  to  close  attention  in  making  each  tooth  cut 
exactly  like  the  preceding  one.  so  that  the  work  is  smooth 
and  regular. 

FILING-ROOM  EQUIPMENT 

The  ideas  of  mill  men  and  saw-filers  differ  as  to  what 
machines  and  tools  comprise  an  efficient  filing-room  outfit, 
and  we  consider  that  in  order  to  make  this  work  complete, 


110 


COOPERAGE 


it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  list  of  the  several  tools, 
machines,  and  appliances  that  are  deemed  in  practice  by 


FIG.  28.    AUTOMATIC  SAW  SHARPENER. 

the  well  informed  to  be  necessary  or  desirable  for  the  dif- 
ferent processes  through  which  a  saw  must  pass  before 
it  would  be  considered  properly  fitted  for  its  particular 


SAWS 


111 


duty.  This  list  as  given  comprises  an  outfit  that  will 
please  the  most  critical,  and  provides  a  machine  or  tool 
for  each  and  every  service  so  far  as  conceived  to  date. 

FOE    SHAKPENING    OK   GUMMING   CIKCULAKS 

An  automatic  sharpener  (Fig.  28)  of  suitable  capacity 
and  of  such  construction  that  the  teeth  are  sharpened 
and  kept  of  the  same  shape  and  size  throughout,  the  gate 
to  be  so  inclined  that  the  emery  wheel  will  drop  to  the 


FIG.  29.     HAND  SHARPENER  AND  GUMMER. 


112  COOPERAGE 

throat  of  each  tooth.  In  this  manner  it  avoids  burning  or 
case-hardening  the  points  of  the  teeth.  Saws  sharpened 
on  an  automatic  sharpener  of  this  kind  will  do  more  work 
with  better  results  than  saws  sharpened  by  hand,  with 
a  big  saving  in  files,  as  emery  wheels  cost  but  little  com- 
pared with  hand  files.  Another  excellent  machine  for 
sharpening  and  gumming  is  shown  in  Fig.  29,  where  an 
automatic  machine  would  be  found  too  expensive  or  the 
small  number  of  saws  operated  would  not  justify  the  pur- 
chase of  an  expensive  automatic  sharpener.  This  hand 
sharpener  is  adjustable,  and  when  in  the  hands  of  a  capa- 
ble saw-filer  produces  excellent  results.  Of  course,  more 
of  the  saw-filer's  time  is  required  in  operating  a  machine 
of  this  type.  If  an  automatic  sharpener  were  installed, 
he  would  find  more  time  to  perform  other  duties,  which 
probably  would  be  to  a  better  advantage  in  the  long  run. 
This  hand  gummer  also  has  an  attachment  whereby 
planer  knives  up  to  twenty-six  inches  in  length  may  be 
ground. 

FOE  SWAGING 

An  up-to-date  and  adjustable  hand  swage  of  the  eccen- 
tric type,  one  that  is  suitable  for  circular  saws  and  when 
in  operation  does  not  pinch  off  the  points  of  the  saw  teeth, 
and  with  the  proper  adjustment,  so  that  any  shaped  tooth 
or  any  gauge  saw  desired  can  be  swaged.  (See  Fig.  30.) 
The  use  of  a  machine  swage  on  all  large  rip  saws  is  indis- 
pensable, and  a  more  general  introduction  of  such  a  tool 
for  swaging  small  factory  saws  would  afford  results  far 
superior  to  hand  swaging,  or  the  mixed  use  of  swage  and 
spring-set,  or  the  use  of  spring-set  only.  Mill  men  and 
all  users  of  large  or  small  rip  saws  are  now  realizing 
more  than  ever  the  great  benefits  derived  by  using  on 
their  saws  a  good  swage,  instead  of  the  old  method  of 
using  the  spring-set  or  the  upset.  Swages  are  now 


SAWS  113 

adapted  to  all  sizes  and  gauges  of  circular  saws,  and  to 
all  ordinary  shapes  of  teeth.  Their  work  is  rapid  and 
is  vastly  superior  to  the  upset  or  spring-set,  as  it  makes 
a  better  corner,  keeps  the  saw  in  round,  and  affords  a 
sharp,  keen  cutting  tooth  that  requires  but  little  dress- 


FIG.  30.    ADJUSTABLE  HAND  SWAGE. 

ing  with  emery  wheel  or  file  to  bring  it  to  a  perfect  point. 
A  properly  swaged  saw  of  any  kind  will  do  more  and 
better  work  and  take  less  power  to  operate  than  one  fitted 
with  a  spring- set,  an  upset,  or  with  a  combined  swage 
and  spring- set. 

Also  an  assortment  of  " upset  swages "  and  a  swage 
bar  and  hammer,  which,  though  not  recommended  by 
modern  mill  men,  may  on  especial  occasions  be  supple- 
mented. 

FOE    SIDE    DKESSING 

A  swage  shaper  or  pressure  dressing  tool  (Fig.  31), 
although  as  yet  not  so  generally  used  in  the  cooperage 
trade,  is  now  considered  as  a  necessary  and  indispensa- 
ble tool  by  all  practical  men  who  are  interested  in  secur- 
ing the  best  results  in  the  operation  of  their  circular  saws. 


114 


COOPEBAGE 


FIG.  31.    SIDE  DRESSER  OR 
SWAGE  SHAPER. 


Expert  saw-filers  are  coming  more  and  more  to  use  the 
swage  shaper  wholly  for   side-dressing  purposes,   and 

while  a  side  file  may  be  used  by 
some  with  satisfactory  results  on 
saws  of  12  to  16  gauge,  the  side 
file  will  not  do  for  light-gauged 
saws.  The  tool  is  used  similarly 
to  an  eccentric  hand  swage,  rest- 
ing over  point  of  tooth  and  oper- 
ated by  the  lever,  to  force  the 
side-dressing  dies  together.  This 
tool  completes  the  work  of  the 
swage,  and  by  its  use  the  swaged 
tooth  may  be  pressed  into  per- 
fect and  uniform  shape.  A  pair 
of  dies  press  upon  the  sides  of 
the  swaged  tooth,  compressing  the  swaging  to  any  de- 
sired set  or  spread,  and  tapering  the  tooth  downward 
and  backward  from  the  point,  making  a  perfect  clear- 
ance, with  face  and  point  always  the  widest.  This  is 
an  ideal  way  to  side-dress  a  saw  tooth,  and  saves  the 
steel  instead  of  filing  it  away,  as  with  the  side  file.  It  is 
well  worth  while  to  aim  for  the  best  results  in  saw-fitting, 
and  with  the  use  of  a  swage  and  swage  shaper  you  will 
have  fewer  bad  cuts,  smoother  stock,  fewer  saws  will 
come  off,  and  less  work  in  hammering  and  tensioning. 
Perfect  swaging  and  side-dressing  suggest  a  minimum 
saw  kerf,  smoother  stock  and  a  reduction  in  power. 

FOE   HAMMERING  AND  ADJUSTING 

Saws  periodically  require  tensioning.  Even  the  smaller 
equalizer  saws  used  in  stave  mills  should  at  times  re- 
ceive this  attention  in  order  to  secure  the  best  results. 
For  this  process  is  required  a  round-face  and  a  cross- 
face  hammer,  weighing  from  2  to  3%  pounds,  an  iron 


SAWS 


115 


levelling  block  or  try  mandrel,  14x72x5  inches  or 
smaller,  surfaced  both  sides  to  permit  of  reversing,  a 
steel-faced  anvil,  14  x  24 
x  5  inches  or  smaller,  two 
steel  straightedges,  one 
from  14  to  18  inches  long, 
and  one  about  48  or  50 
inches  long,  and  a  ten- 
sion gauge.  These  com- 
prise the  necessary  tools 
for  hammering  and  ad- 
justing circular  saws, 
(bee  rig.  oZ.)  FlG  3£  TOOLS  FOR  HAMMERING,  ETC. 

FOR  SETTING 

Where  spring-set  is  used,  a  circular  saw  set  as  shown 
in  Fig.  33  is  desirable.  It  should  be  adjustable  and  ar- 
ranged to  take  in  any  size  saw,  up  to,  say,  48  inches. 


FIG.  33.    CIRCULAR  SAW  SET. 

This  type  of  saw  set  is  superior  to  the  hand  sets  so  much 
in  use  by  the  trade,  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  34.  As  this 
type  of  saw  set  insures  an  even  amount  of  set  in  the 
teeth,  which  is  of  considerable  importance,  in  that  it 
does  not  weaken  the  teeth,  and  is  desirable  in  order  to 
secure  a  more  uniform  setting  and  better  results.  In 
conjunction  with  the  above,  a  setting  or  striking  hammer 
is  necessary.  One  that  does  not  weigh  more  than  three- 


116 


COOPERAGE 


quarters  to  one  pound  is  desirable.  A  saw  gauge  (Fig. 
35)  is  also  necessary  where  the  hand  sets  (Fig.  34)  are 
used.  There  are  innumerable  types  of  these  gauges  in 


FIG.  35.    SAW  GAUGE. 


FIG.  34.    HAND  SAW  SET. 

use,  a  great  variety  of  them  being  made  by  saw-filers 
themselves.  Some  are  constructed  of  wood,  others  of 
iron,  but  the  one  illustrated  is  considered  by  many  as 

the  best.  Another  useful 
tool  in  the  setting  of  small 
saws,  particularly  the  con- 
cave heading  saws,  is  a 
type  styled  Monarch  Pat- 
ent saw  set,  which  is  an 
extremely  simple  and  in- 
expensive tool,  and  very 

effective  in  its  work.  There  should  also  be  included  in 
the  filing-room  equipment  a  bench  vise  or  saw  clamp 
(Fig.  37)  and  an  emery-wheel  dresser. 

FOR  GUMMING  AND  SHARPENING  DRUM  OR  CYLINDER  SAWS 

An  extremely  useful  and  very  economical  tool  for  use 
where  there  are  one  or  more  cylinder  stave  saws  in  opera- 
tion is  shown  in  Fig.  38,  which  is  very  simple  in  con- 
struction, effective  and  extremely  economical,  when  com- 
pared to  labor  saved  and  the  cost  of  hand  files.  These 
gummers  are  adjustable,  being  so  constructed  that  they 
can  be  raised  or  lowered,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  the 


SAWS 


117 


emery  wheel  used  at  any  desired  angle  while  the  gummer 
is  in  use,  and  are  considered  a  necessary  and  indispens- 
able tool  by  all  practical  men  of  the  trade. 


FIG.  36.     CYLINDER  SAW  SWAGE. 
FOE  SWAGING  DKUM  OK  CYLINDER  STAVE  SAWS 

The  swaging  of  cylinder  stave  saws  has  until  recent 
years  been  looked  upon  with  more  or  less  doubt  and  sus- 
picion, from  the  fact  that  the  first  tool 
placed  upon  the  market  for  this  purpose 
did  not  quite  come  up  to  its  require- 
ments; but  since  other  and  improved 
types  (Fig.  36)  have  appeared.  The 
prejudice  formerly  existing  has  grad- 
ually disappeared.  In  justice  to  this  tool 
or  this  method  of  sharpening  saws,  it 
must  be  said  that  cylinder  saws  can,  and 
are,  being  swaged  just  as  successfully 
as  band  or  circular  saws,  and  manufac- 
turers who  aim  toward  economy  will  do 
well  to  include  this  tool  in  their  filing- 
room  equipment,  as  they  are  long  past 
the  experimental  stage,  and  are  being  FlG  37  BENCH 
used  successfully  by  the  leading  man-  VISE  OR  CLAMP. 


118 


COOPEBAGE 


ufacturers.  In  swaging  cylinder  saws,  the  saw  must  be 
gummed  by  the  emery  wheel,  gauged  for  spread  of  tooth, 
and  side-dressed,  the  same  as  ordinary  circular  saws.  In 
the  process  of  swaging,  the  teeth  are  drawn  out,  refining 
the  steel,  which  produces  a  better  cutting 
edge,  that  is  more  easily  kept  sharp. 
And  also  by  the  use  of  the  swage,  instead 
of  the  old  method  of  spring-set,  a  thinner 
gauge  saw  may  be  used,  which  means  less 
saw  kerf,  and  less  kerf  means  less  power, 
and  that  in  its  turn  spells  economy.  There 
are  other  little  advantages  and  economies 
besides  these  in  using  the  swage,  such  as 
smoother  stock,  less  files,  with  less  skill 
to  a  certain  degree  in  sharpening. 

FOR   KNIFE-SHARPENING 

An  automatic  knife  grinder  or  sharp- 
ener (Fig.  39)  is  now  con- 
sidered by  all  successful 
and  modern  mill  operators 
as  an  indispensable  tool  in 
the  proper  equipment  of  the 
grinding  room.  These  ma- 
chines have  been  so  per- 
fected that  they  are  no 
longer  considered  as  an  ex- 
periment, but  as  effective 
The  machine  as  shown  is 
adapted  to  automatically  grind  the  face  of  circle  stave 
knives  of  any  length.  See  detail  sketch  (Figs.  40,  41, 
42  and  43)  showing  the  possible  grinding  of  straight 
or  circle  knives,  which  are  far  superior  to  hand  grind- 
ing or  filing.  A  knife-balancing  scales  (Fig.  39%) 
should  also  be  included  among  the  grinding-  room  outfit. 


FIG.  38.     CYLINDER  SAW  GUMMER 
OR  SHARPENER. 

and  economical  grinders. 


SAWS 


119 


Otherwise  the  proper  balancing  of  the  knives,  so  essen- 
tial to  the  successful  operation  of  the  different  Tiigh- 


FIG.  39.    AUTOMATIC  KNIFE  SHARPENER  OR  GRINDER. 

speed  machines,  is  an  impossibility.     It  is  hardly  pos- 
sible to  realize  what  one  ounce   of  misplaced  weight 


FIG.  39£.    KNIFE  BALANCING  SCALES. 

means  in  a  knife.     Suppose  a  pair  of  knives  are  of 
the  same  weight,  knife  No.  1  being  correct  in  balance, 


120  COOPERAGE 

both  ends  weighing  the  same.  But  the  right  end  of 
knife  No.  2  weighs  one  ounce  more  than  the  right  end 
of  knife  No.  1.  When  revolving  on  a  four-inch  cylinder 
at  4,000  revolutions  per  minute,  this  ounce  exerts  a  pull 


S\ 

Jfnife  Grinder  PZa$f*\      \ 

m 

1*3  of      I 


FIG.  40.    DETAIL  SKETCH  OP  STRAIGHT  BEVEL  GRINDING  OF  KNIFE. 

of  about  58  pounds,  and  this  is  forced  through  its  course 
4,000  times  a  minute,  up  and  down,  back  and  forward. 
Is  it  any  wonder  that  these  little  defects  in  rapidly  re- 
volving cylinders  sometimes  cause  a  whole  building  to  feel 


) 
FIG.  41.    DETAIL  SKETCH  OF  CONCAVE  BEVEL  GRINDING  OF  KNIFE. 

the  motion?  But  this  is  not  all.  As  both  knives  are  of 
equal  weight,  the  left  end  of  knife  No.  2  must  weigh  one 
ounce  less  than  the  same  end  of  knife  No.  1.  Then,  while 
revolving,  one  end  of  the  cylinder  is  thrown  up,  the  other 


SAWS 


121 


end  is  thrown  down,  producing  a  vibratory  motion,  and 
this  practically  doubles  the  defect.  Thus  the  necessity 
of  balancing  the  ends  of  the  knife,  as  well  as  the  knife 


Cup  E^erj/  Wheel. 


.    1 

of   Stavt'Xtiifo' 

FIG.  42.    DETAIL  SKETCH  OF  CONCAVE  GRINDING  OF  STAVE  CUTTER  KNIFE. 

itself,  is  very  plainly  seen.  Knives  out  of  balance  not 
only  produce  poor  quality  of  work,  but  subject  the  ma- 
chine upon  which  they  travel  to  a  tremendous  strain,  and 


Cup  Emery  Wheel  — 
Stave  Xn,ife. 


JTTI _..  r fTIV 


FIG.  43.    DETAIL  SKETCH  OF  BACK  GRINDING  OF  STAVE  CUTTER  KNIFE. 

cause  the  knife  cylinder  to  rattle  and  the  bearings  to  heat 
and  wear  rapidly,  which  necessitates  extra  labor  in  re- 
babbitting  and  unnecessary  expense  in  the  cost  of  babbitt 
metal,  not  mentioning  the  probable  time  lost  by  employ- 
ees, through  the  machine  not  being  in  proper  repair. 


122  COOPEEAGE 

FOR  GENERAL  USE 

All  filing  or  grinding-room  outfits  should  include  among 
their  list  an  emery-wheel  grinder  for  general  use,  as 
these  simple  and  inexpensive  machines  easily  prove  their 
economical  value  by  their  great  saving  in  cost  of  files 
and  labor,  and  can  be  generally  used  for  almost  any  pur- 
pose where  filing  is  necessary. 

SOME  CAUSES  OF  POOR  RESULTS  IN  SAWS 

1.  Attempting  to  run  too  long  without  sharpening. 

2.  Irregular  and  shallow  gullets. 

3.  Uneven  setting  and  filing. 

4.  Not  enough  set  for  proper  clearance. 

5.  Backs  of  teeth  too  high  for  clearance. 

6.  Too  much  pitch  or  hook  on  teeth. 

7.  Out  of  round,  and  consequently  out  of  balance. 

8.  Ill-fitting  mandrel  and  pinholes. 

9.  Collars  not  large  enough  in  diameter. 

10.  Weak  and  imperfect  collars. 

11.  Insufficient  power  to  maintain  regular  speed. 

12.  Too  thin  a  saw  for  the  class  of  work  required. 

13.  Not  enough  or  too  many  teeth. 

14.  A  sprung  mandrel  or  lost  motion  in  mandrel  boxes. 

15.  Heating  of  journal  next  to  saw. 

16.  Carriage  not  properly  aligned  with  saw. 

THE    PROPER   CARE    OF    SAWS 

One  of  the  most  general  causes  of  trouble  with  saws 
of  all  kinds  is  the  first  item  on  the  list,  "Attempting  to 
run  too  long  without  sharpening. ' '  The  points  of  the  saw 
teeth  are  the  only  parts  of  the  saw  that  should  come  in 
contact  with  the  timber.  They  should  be  kept  sharp  by 
the  frequent  use  of  the  file  or  sharpener,  and  set  by 
springing,  swaging,  or  spreading  when  necessary  suf- 
ficiently to  clear  the  blade  of  the  saw  nicely  to  prevent 


SAWS  123 

friction.  As  the  points  of  the  teeth  do  all  the  work,  they 
become  dull  and  round,  the  sides  of  the  points  wearing 
away  as  well  as  the  points  themselves.  If  there  is  ' l only" 
one  corner  off,  and  that  corner  leaves  a  ridge,  it  would 
have  practically  the  same  effect  on  the  saw  blade  in  pass- 
ing as  if  all  the  teeth  had  corners  broken  or  worn  off; 
and  heating  will  develop  unless  the  saw  is  set  wide,  which 
means  unnecessary  waste  of  power  and  of  timber.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  one  corner  is  a  little  longer  than  the 
others,  leaving  a  groove  instead  of  a  ridge  in  the  face  of 
the  work,  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  saw  blade;  but 
the  surface  of  the  stock  cut,  in  order  to  be  smooth  when 
planed,  will  necessarily  have  to  be  cut  down  to  whatever 
depth  that  groove  extends  below  the  face,  and  that  means 
an  unnecessary  waste  of  just  that  much  timber;  so  in 
either  case  it  is  imperfect  fitting  or  negligence  of  one's 
duty  that  creates  a  monetary  loss,  which  could  have  been 
prevented  by  the  proper  amount  of  care  and  attention. 
When  a  thin  saw  is  used,  with  the  object  of  saving  timber 
by  lessening  the  saw  kerf,  a  long  or  short  corner  on  a 
tooth  makes  it  necessary  to  waste  it  and  sometimes  more 
at  the  planer.  Therefore,  it  is  more  economical  to 
sharpen  the  saw  before  it  has  become  dull  and  round 
pointed.  Great  care  should  also  be  taken  to  maintain  the 
proper  shape  of  the  points  of  the  teeth.  This  can  be 
readily  accomplished  when  necessary  by  the  frequent  use 
of  the  machine  or  hand  swage,  or  by  the  hand  file,  as  the 
case  may  be.  The  gullets  or  sawdust  chambers  of  the 
saw  teeth  should  under  no  circumstances  be  filed  square, 
and  this  rule  should  be  applied  to  the  small  saws  as  well 
as  the  larger  ones.  They  should  in  all  cases  be  kept 
rounded  out  either  by  the  use  of  the  saw  gummer  or  file. 
A  saw  tooth  becomes  dull  on  the  side  or  under  the  point 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  feed.  For  instance,  if 
the  tooth  takes  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  hold  at  each 


124  COOPEEAGE 

revolution,  it  will  become  dull  to  a  depth  of  one- sixteenth 
of  an  inch  below  the  point,  or  more  or  less  as  you  increase 
or  decrease  the  amount  of  feed.  A  few  moments'  filing 
two  or  three  times  a  day  will  save  much  of  the  time  and 
labor  otherwise  expended  in  running  a  dull  saw,  and 
effect  a  saving  in  the  power  consumed,  increase  the  out- 
put, and  materially  improve  the  quality  of  the  manufac- 
tured product.  The  square  corners  in  the  gullet  or  saw- 
dust chamber  is  another  of  the  most  frequent  causes  of 
poor  results  in  saws,  which  should  be  guarded  against, 
as  they  are  very  liable  to  cause  cracks  to  appear,  par- 
ticularly when  the  teeth  are  dull  or  during  frosty  weather. 

SAWS   OUT    OF   BOUND 

The  cutting  of  a  circular  or  any  other  saw  should  be 
continuous,  consequently  the  saw  must  be  perfectly  round 
to  produce  the  best  results.  No  saw  can  reasonably  be 
expected  to  perform  good  work  if  it  is  out  of  round 
and  consequently  out  of  balance.  When  a  saw  has  long 
and  short  teeth  it  naturally  follows  that  the  longest  teeth 
will  do  the  most  work.  This  throws  the  heaviest  strain 
on  that  part  of  the  saw,  instead  of  distributing  it  equally 
around  the  entire  circumference.  It  is  fully  as  impor- 
tant that  saws  be  kept  perfectly  round  as  it  is  that 
they  should  be  kept  well  swaged  and  sharpened.  It  is 
a  comparatively  easy  matter  to  keep  saws  round  with 
automatic  machinery,  but  it  requires  considerably  more 
skill  to  keep  them  round  simply  by  the  action  of  sharp- 
ening with  a  hand  file.  All  filers  should  "joint"  their 
saws  frequently.  In  swage-set  saws  always  l  i  joint ' '  after 
a  fresh  swaging  by  holding  a  piece  of  an  old  emery  wheel 
against  the  teeth  while  it  revolves  slowly,  thus  reducing 
the  teeth  to  a  common  length.  Then  file  them  again  to 
a  keen  cutting  edge.  Keep  the  saw  round,  well  set  and 
nicely  balanced. 


SAWS  125 

SHAKPENING   AND    GUMMING 

In  sharpening  or  gumming  saws  with  emery  wheels, 
always  use  a  good  free-cutting  wheel  and  never  put  so 
much  pressure  on  it  or  crowd  it  so  fast  that  the  teeth 
are  heated  to  such  an  extent  that  they  become  blued  or 
case-hardened  by  the  emery  wheel.  They  are  liable  to 
break  or  crumble  when  in  the  cut  or  the  next  time  they 
are  swaged  or  set  with  the  spring-set.  Joint  or  true  the 
emery  wheel  occasionally  to  retain  the  proper  shape  of 
its  face,  which  should  be  kept  round,  and  to  remove  the 
glaze.  When  gumming,  it  is  always  best  to  gum  around 
the  saw  several  times,  instead  of  finishing  each  tooth 
at  one  operation,  for  by  this  method  they  are  less  liable 
to  case-harden  or  blue,  and  a  more  uniform  gullet  or 
sawdust  chamber  is  obtained.  Keep  the  teeth  of  the 
same  width,  and  the  throats  or  gullets  of  the  same  uni- 
form depth,  so  that  the  saw  will  be  in  perfect  running 
balance.  After  gumming  it  is  advisable  to  file  all  around 
the  saw,  taking  care  to  remove  the  fash  or  burr  left  on  the 
edges  and  all  the  glazed  or  hard  spots  caused  by  the  em- 
ery wheel.  .Gumming  and  sharpening  a  saw  with  an  emery 
wheel,  especially  if  you  attempt  to  crowd  the  work,  will 
have  a  tendency  to  cause  the  saw  to  "let  down"  or  lose 
its  tension  much  quicker  than  by  the  use  of  the  hand 
file,  as  it  heats  and  expands  the  rim  of  the  saw,  putting 
it  in  the  shape  generally  termed  by  mill  men  i  i  buckled, ' ' 
which  makes  it  appear  loose  and  limber.  Many  saws 
are  condemned  just  from  this  cause  and  thrown  aside 
as  worn  out,  when  by  proper  work  in  hammering  they 
can  be  made  as  good  as  new  again. 

FITTING    AND    SWAGING 

See  that  the  saw  slips  up  freely  to  fast  collar  and 
hangs  straight  and  plumb  when  tightened  up ;  that  the 
saw  mandrel  is  level  and  has  no  end  play  or  lateral 


126  COOPEEAGE 

motion,  as  the  grain  of  the  wood  will  push  or  draw  the 
mandrel  endwise  no  matter  how  well  the  saw  is  kept. 
Keep  the  saw  sharp,  round  and  swaged  or  set  enough 
for  clearance.  An  extreme  amount  of  set  or  swaging, 
notwithstanding  the  injudicious  waste  of  timber,  in- 
creases the  tensile  strain  and  also  has  a  tendency  to 
make  the  saw  tremble.  The  proper  amount  of  set  or 
swaging  varies  according  to  the  class  of  timber  being 
cut,  hardwoods  requiring  the  least  amount  of  set,  and 
soft  or  fibrous  woods  requiring  more.  The  amount  of 
clearance  required  also  depends  on  the  gauge  of  the 
saw.  In  the  usual  gauges  of  large  circular  saws,  say, 
8,  9  and  10  gauge,  a  clearance  of  %2  of  an  inch  equally 
divided,  is  about  "as  little"  clearance  as  should  be 
run,  except  in  hardwoods  and  frozen  timber;  then  less 
may  be  used.  In  smaller  saws,  a  clearance  of  "four" 
to  "five  gauges"  is  usually  considered  sufficient  by  most 
filers,  and  few  make  a  greater  distinction  than  "one" 
gauge  of  set,  as  between  hardwoods  and  softwoods,  the 
hardwoods  requiring  less.  Keep  the  extreme  point  of 
the  tooth  the  widest,  and  do  all  the  filing  or  gumming 
on  the  under  or  front  side  of  the  tooth,  always  filing 
square  across  the  teeth.  Never  file  square  corners  in 
the  gullets  of  the  saw  teeth  of  any  kind,  as  this  renders 
them  liable  to  break.  When  there  is  occasion  to  swage 
or  upset  the  teeth  of  the  saw,  the  proper  method  is  to 
file  them  all  to  a  sharp  point  first,  then  swage  afterward, 
as  this  will  not  only  save  time,  but  will  save  the  saw,  for 
the  sharper  the  teeth,  the  more  easily  will  they  swage 
or  upset.  Always  endeavor  to  keep  the  teeth  in  the 
same  shape  they  were  when  new,  filing  them  to  a  uniform 
depth  and  width  and  with  the  same  amount  of  rake,  for, 
should  they  lose  any  of  their  hook  or  rake  or  sawdust 
chamber,  the  saw  will  not  only  consume  more  power,  but 
be  harder  to  keep  in  order,  as  well  as  turn  out  inferior 


SAWS  127 

work,  and  consequently  cause  considerable  waste  of  tim- 
ber. Keep  the  saws  well  balanced,  round  and  the  gullets 
or  throats  well  gummed  out. 

LEAD   OF   SAWS 

The  amount  of  lead  required  for  circular  saws  should 
be  the  least  amount  that  is  possible  in  order  to  keep  the 
saw  in  the  cut  and  prevent  it  from  heating  at  the  centre. 
If  the  lead  into  the  cut  is  too  great,  the  saw  will  heat  on 
the  rim ;  if  the  lead  out  of  the  cut  is  too  much,  the  saw 
will  heat  at  the  centre.  However,  we  will  take  this  mat- 
ter up  with  the  individual  saws  further  on  in  this  work. 

NUMBER  AND   STYLE   OF   TOOTH 

The  style,  shape  and  number  of  teeth  in  saws  depend 
entirely  upon  its  diameter,  gauge,  the  purpose  for  which 
the  saw  is  to  be  used,  and  the  class  of  timber  to  be  cut. 
The  amount  of  hook,  depth,  size,  and  shape  of  the  saw- 
dust chamber  or  gullet  also  play  an  important  part  in 
the  working  and  success  of  the  saw.  A  long  tooth  has 
the  demerit  of  being  weak  and  liable  to  spring.  But 
it  also  has  the  merit  of  giving  a  greater  clearance  to  the 
sawdust  chamber.  The  throat  space  in  front  of  each 
tooth  must  be  large  enough  to  contain  the  sawdust  pro- 
"  duced  by  that  tooth  in  each  revolution.  And  the  greater 
the  feed,  the  larger  or  deeper  it  must  be  in  order  to  fulfil 
its  mission,  or  the  more  teeth  required.  If  a  saw  is  lack- 
ing in  the  proper  amount  of  hook  or  the  teeth  are  nearly 
straight  on  the  face,  they  will  scrape  instead  of  cut,  and 
will  soon  become  dull.  This  produces  no  end  of  trouble 
in  itself,  for  the  teeth  will  cut  hard,  and  it  will  require 
double  the  amount  of  power  to  force  the  saw  through 
the  cut.  The  severe  strain  on  the  teeth  when  in  this  dull 
condition  causes  them  to  tremble  in  the  cut,  producing 
a  tremulous  strain  on  the  saw  plate  that  calls  for  more 


128  COOPERAGE 

tension.  And  this  severe  strain  on  the  teeth  and  at  the 
bottom  of  the  gullets,  and  especially  so  if  the  teeth  are 
long,  tends  to  crack  the  plate  at  this  point  and  breaks 
out  the  teeth.  Although  the  saw  may  have  tension 
enough  under  ordinary  conditions,  the  circumstances 
referred  to  above  so  strain  and  stretch  the  edge  while 
the  saw  is  at  work  that  "more"  tension  is  required  to 
guard  against  the  saw  running  snaky.  Considering  the 
elasticity  of  the  steel,  it  is  reasonable  to  concede  that 
anything  that  tends  to  pull  or  strain  the  plate  will  stretch 
it,  and  the  more  it  stretches,  the  more  tension  is  required 
to  enable  it  to  stand  up  to  its  work.  And  it  has  been 
fully  demonstrated  that  an  extreme  amount  of  tension 
tends  to  throw  too  heavy  a  strain  on  the  edge  of  the 
plate,  and  eventually  it  will  cause  the  saw  to  crack  at 
the  gullets.  A  great  many  saw  filers  when  their  saws  get 
into  this  condition,  instead  of  adding  a  little  more  hook 
to  the  teeth  and  making  a  good,  large,  round  gullet  or 
sawdust  chamber,  give  the  saw  "more  tension"  to  over- 
come this  trouble,  which  might  have  been  remedied  other- 
wise, and  is  a  grave  mistake,  and  will  eventually  lead  to 
more  and  greater  difficulties. 

CIRCULAR   RIPSAWS 

The  standard  amount  of  hook  or  rake  generally  given 
large  ripsaws,  and  which  is  usually  considered  "the 
limit"  or  "the  least"  amount  that  a  saw  should  have  to 
enable  it  to  run  successfully  and  stand  up  to  its  work  has 
been  found  to  conform  to  the  following  rule:  The  pitch 
line  of  tooth  must  be  tangent  to  a  circle  whose  diameter  is 
one-half  that  of  the  saw.  Although  this  pitch  line  of  tooth 
is  usually  considered ' 1  standard, ' '  a  saw  will  do  equally  as 
well  with  a  little  more  than  this.  In  cases  where  a  spring- 
set  is  used  on  large  ripsaws,  it  is  always  considered 
practical  to  have  a  larger  number  of  teeth  than  if  the 


SAWS  129 

saws  were  fitted  with  a  full  swage  set.     And,  again,  i 
should  always  be  remembered  that  thin-gauge  saws  also 
require  a  larger  number  of  teeth  than  saws  of  a  heavier 
gauge,  to  do  the  same  class  of  sawing,  as  this  equalizes 
the  strain  on  the  rim,  as  well  as  prevents  springing  of 
the  teeth.    It  has  been  also  found  advisable,  whether  rip- 
saws are  fitted  with  spring  or  swage  set  always  to  file 
straight  across  in  front  and  back  of  the  teeth,  as  a  bev- 
elled tooth  has  a  tendency  to  split  the  fibres  of  the  wood, 
instead  of  cutting  it  off  squarely  across,  and  produces 
a  lateral  motion,  which  causes  the  teeth  to  chatter  and 
vibrate  in  the  cut.     Many  saws  are  cracked  from  this 
cause,  although  it  has  been  frequently  stated  that  cotton- 
wood  and  gum,  especially  the  former,  is  the  most  difficult 
of  woods  to  cut,  on  account  of  its  fibrous  and  stringy 
nature,  and  that  in  order  to  saw  this  class  of  timber  suc- 
cessfully the  saw  teeth  should  be  set  with  a  full  spring- 
set,  and  the  points  "bevelled"  and  sharpened  to  almost 
a  needle  point.    This  wrinkle  may  be  worth  trying  out. 
In  order  to  determine  the  number  of  teeth  required  in 
a  saw,  it  is  first  necessary  to  find  out  the  amount  of  feed 
the  saw  is  to  run  on,  and  if  the  feed  is  four  inches  to 
every  revolution,  it  is  considered  standard  to  have  one 
and  one-half  tooth  for  every  inch  of  the  diameter  of  the 
saw.    In  other  words,  if  a  saw  is  working  on  a  4-inch 
feed,  and  it  is  desired  to  operate  a  50-inch  saw,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  have  75  teeth,  and  for  every  additional 
"inch  of  feed"  carried  add  10  teeth;  that  is,  for  a  50-inch 
saw  with  5-inch  feed  85  teeth,  6-inch  feed  95  teeth,  and 
so  on,  increasing  the  number  of  teeth  in  a  slightly  less 
proportion  up  to  any  desired  amount  of  "feed."    Where 
the  feed  is  less  than  four  inches  the  same  rule  may  be  ap- 
plied by  reducing  the  number  of  teeth  in  proportion  to  the 
reduction  in  feed.    The  above  rule  applies  only  to  the  reg- 
ular gauges  used,  say,  10  to  16  gauge.    Heavier  gauge 


130 


COOPEEAGE 


fgaws  require  less  teeth.  This  rule  applies  particularly 
to  saws  cutting  soft  and  fibrous  timher.  For  hardwood 
or  frozen  timber,  where  there  is  sufficient  power  to  main- 
tain a  uniform  speed,  the  same  rule  may  be  applied.  But 
in  mills  where  the  power  is  limited  and  of  an  uneven 
speed,  it  is  not  good  policy  to  have  more  than  one  tooth 
to  every  inch  of  the  diameter  of  the  saw,  as  the  fewer 
teeth  there  are  in  a  saw,  the  less  power  it  requires  to 
drive  it.  - 

THE  STANDARD  NUMBER  OF  TEETH  IN  CIRCULAR  RIP  SAWS 


HEADING  SAWS 

DlAM. 

INCH 

No.  TBETH 

DlAM. 

INCH 

No.  TEETH 

DlAM. 

INCH 

No.  TEETH 

JJIAM. 

INCH 

No.  TEETH 

4 

38  to  40 

24 

34  to  Sd 

50 

50  to    70 

40 

60  to    80 

5 

38  to  40 

26 

32  to  34 

52 

52  to    80 

6 

38  to  40 

28 

32  to  34 

54 

54  to    80 

42 

60  to    80 

7 
8 

38  to  40 
38  to  40 

30 
32 

32  to  34 
32  to  34 

56 

58 

56  to    90 
58  to    90 

44 

72  to    90 

9 

36  to  38 

34 

32  to  34 

60 

60  to  100 

46 

72  to    90 

10 

36  to  38 

36 

34  to  38 

62 

60  to  100 

12 

36  to  38 

38 

34  to  38 

64 

60  to  100 

48 

80  to  100 

14 

36  to  38 

40 

36  to  40 

66 

72  to  100 

16 

36  to  38 

42 

36  to  40 

68 

80  to  100 

50 

80  to  100 

18 
20 

34  to  36 
34  to  36 

44 
46 

36  to  40 
36  to  40 

70 
72 

90  to  100 
90  to  100 

52 

80  to  100 

22 

34  to  36 

48 

48  to  60 

54 

84  to  110 

CUT-OFF  OR  CEOSS-CUT  SAWS 

Cut-off  saws  differ  from  ripsaws  only  in  the  shape 
of  their  teeth  and  the  manner  of  filing  or  dressing  them. 
The  amount  of  hook  necessary  for  such  saws  cutting  soft 
or  fibrous  woods,  and  which  is  usually  considered  most 
satisfactory,  is  that  the  line  of  pitch  on  teeth  should  run 
through  the  centre  of  mandrel  hole ;  and  for  cutting  hard- 
woods, the  amount  of  hook  or  pitch  is  always  a  little  less. 
The  bevel  on  cross-cut  saw  teeth*  should  never  extend 
into  the  gullets  or  sawdust  chamber,  in  fact,  "only"  the 
"points"  of  the  teeth  need  bevelling.  The  remainder  of 
the  tooth  and  gullet  should  be  dressed  straight  across. 
In  heavy  cutting  the  front  of  the  tooth  should  be  filed 


SAWS 


131 


with  "very  little"  or  no  bevel.  Many  saw-filers  have 
adopted  the  method  of  filing  every  seventh  tooth  square, 
front  and  back.  This  is  considered  good  practice,  as  it 
removes  the  core  or  V  from  the  kerf  and  prevents  much 
of  the  lateral  strain.  These  teeth  should  be  just  a  trifle 
shorter  than  the  ones  that  are  bevelled.  When  sawing 
v^ery  hard  or  kiln-dried  hardwood,  it  is  always  consid- 
ered advisable  to  use  a  narrower  gullet  and  a  stouter 
tooth  than  when  cutting  green  or  fresh  timber. 

STANDARD  NUMBER  OF  TEETH  IN  CROSS-CUT  SAWS 


DlAM. 

INCH 

No.  TEETH 

DlAM. 

INCH 

No.  TEETH 

DlAM. 

INCH 

No.  TEETH 

DlAM. 

INCH 

No.  TEETH 

4 

100  to  120 

18 

80  to  90 

38 

80  to  100 

56 

90  to  120 

5 

100  to  120 

20 

80  to  90 

40 

80  to  100 

58 

90  to  120 

6 

100  to  120 

22 

72  to  80 

42 

80  to  100 

60 

90  to  120 

7 

100  to  120 

24 

72  to  80 

44 

80  to  100 

62 

100  to  140 

8 

100  to  120 

26 

72  to  80 

48 

80  to  100 

6t 

100  to  140 

9 

90  to  110 

28 

72  to  80 

48 

80  to  100 

66 

100  to  140 

10 

90  to  110 

30 

80  to  90 

50 

80  to  100 

68 

100  to  160 

12 

90  to  100 

32 

80  to  90 

52 

80  to  100  ' 

70 

100  to  160 

14 

90  to  100 

34 

80  to  90 

54 

90  to  120 

72 

100  to  160 

16 

80  to    90 

36 

80  to  90 

COLLAKS    FOK    SAWS 

For  a  perfect-running  saw,  it  is  indispensable  to  have 
collars  and  stem  of  mandrel  true  and  well  fitting;  any 
imperfection  in  these  points  is  multiplied  as  many  times 
as  the  saw  is  larger  than  the  collar.  They  should  be  a 
perfect  fit.  For  large  saws,  collars  should  be  used  that 
have  a  perfect  bearing  of  three-quarters  of  an  inch  on 
the  outer  rim,  the  other  part  of  the  collar  clear,  as  they 
grip  and  hold  tighter  than  a  solid  flat  collar.  Examine 
the  collars  carefully,  to  see  if  they  are  true,  and  if  not, 
have  them  made  so;  also  be  sure  that  stem  of  mandrel 
fits  the  hole  nice  and  snug,  and  offers  no  obstruction  to 
the  saw  slipping  easily  up  to  and  against  the  fast  collar. 
Test  the  saw  with  a  straightedge,  and  if  it  is  found  true, 
place  it  on  the  mandrel,  tighten  up  the  collars,  test  it 


132  COOPEBAGE 

again  with  the  straightedge,  and  determine  if  the  position 
of  the  blade  has  been  altered,  observing  whether  it  shows 
true;  if  not,  the  fault  is  sure  to  lie  in  the  collars,  and 
should  be  remedied,  otherwise  it  will  likely  ruin  the  saw. 

SPEED  OF  SAWS 

This  is  a  very  important  point  for  consideration,  as  all 
large  circular  saws  being  hammered  for  certain  speeds, 
a  hundred  revolutions  more  or  less  will  always  make 
a  great  difference  in  the  running  of  the  saw.  Experience, 
sometimes  well  earned,  has  proven  that  a  saw  works 
better,  both  as  to  quality  and  quantity  of  its  output,  when 
run  at  a  regular  speed.  It  may  be  remarked  in  this 
connection  that  the  prevailing  practice  for  a  number  of 
years  in  America  has  been  to  speed  saws  higher  than 
is  really  necessary  or  even  advisable;  in  short,  we  have 
had  a  spell  of  being  speed-wild,  trying  to  see  what  we 
can  do  in  the  way  of  high  speed,  but  at  present  there 
is  an  undercurrent  of  feeling,  and  a  tendency  toward 
easing  down  a  little  in  speed  and  taking  more  pains  with 
the  work.  This  tendency  will  probably  grow  stronger,  too, 
as  timber  becomes  more  scarce  and  valuable,  and  we  begin 
to  realize  more  fully  that  it  is  not  the  quantity  we  turn 
out,  but  what  we  get  out  of  the  timber  that  goes  into  the 
mill  that  counts  the  most.  And  from  practical  experience 
it  has  been  proven  that  it  is  far  better,  both  from  a  stand- 
point of  economy  and  efficiency,  to  run  a  saw  "too  slow" 
rather  than  "too  fast."  When  you  get  a  saw  speeded 
too  high,  and  especially  if  it  is  not  set  on  a  firm  founda- 
tion, it  becomes  limber  and  touchy,  will  dodge  about  and 
manifest  every  kind  of  weakness ;  on  the  other  hand,  a 
saw  running  too  slow,  while  having  its  objections,  is 
never  attended  with  serious  faults  that  arise  when  one 
is  running  at  too  high  a  speed.  And  it  is  always  wise 
to  avoid  both  extremes.  The  speed  of  circular  saws  gen- 


SAWS  133 

erally  is  based  on  the  rim  travel  per  minute,  the  standard 
basis  for  figuring  to-day,  and  advised  by  the  leading  saw 
manufacturers,  being  about  10,000  to  12,000  feet  on  the 
rim.  A  great  deal  depends  on  circumstances,  and  theo- 
retically, according  to  this  formula,  in  order  to  secure  the 
proper  rim  travel  or  speed,  the  smaller  the  saw  the  more 
revolutions  it  would  have  to  make.  A  16-inch  saw, 
for  example,  figured  on  this  basis,  would  have  to  run 
nearly  2,500  revolutions  per  minute.  Whether  or  not 
it  should  be  run  at  this  speed  depends  on  circumstances. 
If  it  is  a  bench  or  equalizer  saw,  firmly  held,  it  may  be 
run  at  this  speed  and  even  higher,  but  if  it  is  a  pendu- 
lum or  swing  saw,  the  speed  should  not  be  quite  so  high, 
and  about  1,800  to  2,000  revolutions  would  be  nearer 
right.  This  matter  of  speed  will  be  taken  up  more 
thoroughly  with  each  individual  saw  further  on  in  this 
volume. 

HAMMEBHSTG  AND  TENSIONING 

The  object  to  be  attained  in  the  hammering  of  a  cir- 
cular saw  is  to  tension  or  level  it  so  that  it  will  revolve 
in  a  perfect  plane  when  in  full  motion.  It  also  requires 
a  reserve  amount  of  tension  to  compensate  for  the  re- 
sistance of  the  cut.  This  is  not  so  apparent  in  saws  ham- 
mered for  medium  or  slow  speed  with  light  power  as 
with  high-speed  saws.  All  saws  if  properly  made  are 
open  toward  the  centre,  this  amount  being  more  or  less 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  revolutions  the  saw  is 
to  run.  It  would  be  well  for  those  having  charge  of  the 
saws  to  examine  them  carefully  when  they  arrive  from 
the  saw  maker,  and  determine  closely  how  much  the 
saw  drops  away  from  the  straightedge,  and  the  same 
amount  of  tension  kept  in  the  saw  at  all  times.  The 
amount  of  gumming  necessary  to  maintain  the  shape  of 
the  teeth,  and  the  expansion  of  the  rim  by  motion,  to- 
gether with  the  resistance  of  the  cut,  have  all  worked 


134 


COOPEEAGE 


together  to  stretch  permanently  the  rim  of  the  saw,  caus- 
ing it  to  lose  its  tension.  There  is  no  known  process  by 
which  this  rim  may  be  contracted,  so  the  central  portion 
of  the  saw  must  be  stretched  to  compensate  for  this  en- 
largement of  the  rim.  A  saw  seldom  loses  its  tension 
evenly.  If  it  did  so,  the  work  of  restoring  it  would 
be  very  much  simplified.  This  uneven  effect  will  result 
from  a  variety  of  causes.  It  may  be  from  an  uneven 
temper  of  the  saw  plate,  but  it  more  often  results  from 
a  little  unevenness  of  the  tension  in  the  saw.  A  saw  that 

has  lost  its  tension  needs 
hammering  with  a  round- 
faced  hammer,  as  shown 
in  Cut  No.  1.  However, 
before  concluding  that 
the  saw  requires  ham- 
mering to  adjust  the  ten- 
sion, see  if  there  is  not 
some  other  cause  for  the 
trouble,  such  as  the  saw 
being  lined  into  the  log 
too  much,  which  would 
cause  it  to  draw  into  the 
log  and  heat  on  the  rim, 
the  guides  not  being  properly  adjusted,  the  gullets 
being  too  narrow  for  the  feed,  or  the  teeth  not  being 
swaged  and  dressed.  Before  beginning  to  hammer  it, 
place  the  saw  upon  the  anvil,  and  with  the  back  edge 
resting  upon  a  support  the  same  height  as  the  anvil,  raise 
the  front  part  of  the  saw  with  the  hip  and  left  hand, 
until  the  centre  of  the  saw  is  clear  of  the  anvil.  Proceed 
to  examine  the  saw  carefully  all  around  with  the  straight- 
edge, by  applying  it  between  the  centre  and  the  rim,  at 
exactly  right  angles  with  the  supports.  Any  other  angle 
will  show  a  bend  of  the  plate  instead  of  the  condition  of 


CUT  No.  1. 


SAWS 


135 


the  tension.  And  note  the  difference  of  the  parts  of  the 
saw  as  they  appear  under  the  straightedge.  If  any  part 
is  found  to  drop  away  more  than  the  rest  of  the  saw 
from  the  centre  of  saw  to  the  edge,  mark  this  part  as 
shown  in  Cut  No.  2,  and  do  not  hammer  as  much,  if  any, 
at  that  place,  until  you  have  gone  over  the  rest  of  the 
saw  with  the  round-faced  hammer,  as  this  shows  a  degree 
of  tension,  and  perhaps  enough  for  that  part  of  the  saw 
when  finished ;  for  such  places  always  show  more  tension 
when  the  balance  of  the  saw  is  equalized  to  it.  Another 
part  may  come  up  to  the 
edge  or  show  perfectly 
flat.  This  part  of  the 
saw  is  stiff  and  needs 
hammering  for  tension, 
still  another  part  may 
show  full,  that  is,  the  rim 
may  drop  away  from  the 
straightedge.  This  part 
of  the  saw  is  in  a  con- 
dition that  is  termed 
"fast,"  and  needs 
"more"  hammering  for 
tension  than  any  other 
part.  Examine  the  centre  also.  This  may  show  flat  or  per- 
haps a  little  full,  which  indicates  that  this  part  of  the  saw 
is  too  stiff.  Now  proceed  to  lay  off  the  saw  for  hammer- 
ing. Describe  a  number  of  circles  three  inches  apart,  mak- 
ing the  outside  one  four  inches  from  the  rim  of  the  saw 
and  the  inside  one  an  inch  or  so  from  the  collar  line.  Ex- 
amine with  a  straightedge  and  mark  those  parts  which 
show  "fast"  or  "stiff"  by  enclosing  them  with  marks 
like  half  circles,  of  longer  or  shorter  length,  according 
to  the  conditions.  The  fast  places  in  such  a  saw  will 
generally  need  hammering  on  all  the  circles  described, 


CUT  No.  2. 


136 


COOPERAGE 


while  those  which  are  " stiff"  may  not  extend  so  far  out 
toward  the  rim.  When  all  is  in  readiness  for  hammer- 
ing, use  a  round-faced  hammer,  weighing  from  2  to  3% 
pounds,  and  do  not  strike  too  heavy,  for  it  is  better  to  go 
over  the  saw  several  times  than  to  hammer  too  much  at 
one  time  and  put  the  saw  in  a  worse  shape  than  it  was 
before  you  began.  After  going  over  one  side,  mark  off 
the  other  side,  and  repeat  the  operation  with  as  near  as 
possible  the  same  number  and  weight  of  blows  as  struck 
on  the  first  side,  spacing  your  blows  about  three  inches 

apart  on  the  circles. 
These  circles  are  in- 
tended as  a  guide  to  uni- 
form work.  After  doing 
this  much,  erase  all  your 
marks  and  proceed  to 
level  by  standing  the  saw 
upon  the  floor  in  a  per- 
pendicular position,  and 
examine  both  sides  of  the 
saw  with  a  long  straight- 
edge; and  if  the  ham- 
mering has  been  equally 
done  on  both  sides,  the 
saw  should  be  very  nearly  true.  If,  however,  it  shows 
full  on  one  side  and  dishing  on  the  other,  mark  these  full 
places ;  then  place  the  saw  on  the  anvil  with  the  full  side 
up  and  hammer  lightly ;  test  again  with  the  long  straight- 
edge, and  if  it  appears  true,  put  it  on  the  anvil  and  test 
it  for  tension,  as  before  explained,  to  see  if  it  has  the 
proper  tension.  If  not,  repeat  the  operation  with  the 
round-faced  hammer.  After  again  testing,  put  the  saw 
on  the  try  mandrel  and  test  with  the  short  straightedge 
for  running  true.  Mark  the  places  as  they  run  "off"  or 
"on,"  as  shown  in  Cut  No.  3.  While  turning  the  saw 


CUT  No.  3. 


SAWS 


137 


slowly  around  and  where  the  saw  runs  "off,"  lumps  will 
be  found  most  likely,  as  at  1,  1,  1,  or  what  is  termed 
"twist  lumps,"  as  at  2,  2,  2,  or  both  may  occur.  These 
lumps  must  be  taken  out  with  a  cross-faced  hammer,  the 
blows  being  struck  so  that  they  will  be  in  line  with  the 
lump ;  that  is,  the  mark  or  impression  the  hammer  leaves 
should  run  in  the  same  direction  that  the  lump  runs,  as 
shown  by  the  straightedge.  A  twist  cannot  be  taken  out 
with  a  round-faced  hammer,  neither  is  a  round-faced 
hammer  liable  to  twist  the  saw.  On  the  other  hand,  by 
using  a  cross-faced  ham- 
mer, twist  lumps  can  be 
very  easily  removed,  if 
the  blows  are  struck  in 
line  with  the  lumps.  The 
saw  may  also  be  thrown 
out  of  true  by  lumps  run- 
ning toward  the  centre, 
as  at  3,  as  shown  in  Cut 
No.  3.  In  this  case  the 
saw  will  be  "on"  or 
"off"  at  points  about 
opposite  each  other.  In 
removing  these  twist 

lumps  the  hammering  must  be  done  carefully,  otherwise 
the  tension  may  be  altered.  Now  put  the  saw  on  the  arbor, 
and  if  for  high  speed  it  should  sway  gently  from  side  to 
side  in  getting  up  to  full  speed,  and  will  then  run  steadily 
and  do  its  work  properly ;  but  if  it  is  snaky  or  rattles  in 
the  guides,  it  needs  to  be  more  open  toward  the  centre. 
Where  a  saw  is  too  open  at  the  centre,  it  should  be  ham- 
mered in  from  the  edge,  as  shown  in  Cut  No.  4;  and  the 
distance  to  hammer  in  from  the  edge  depends  on  where 
the  loose  parts  are  on  the  saw.  If  the  centre  is  loose  to  the 
first  line,  or  the  one  nearest  to  the  centre,  hammer  from 


CUT  No.  4. 


138 


COOPERAGE 


the  rim  to  that  line;  but  if  it  runs  out  to  the  next  line, 
hammer  only  to  that  line.  The  degree  of  opening  or  loose- 
ness necessary  depends  on  the  speed  the  saw  is  to  run. 
The  higher  the  speed,  the  more  opening  or  tensioning 
is  necessary,  and  vice  versa.  An  experienced  man  will 
stand  the  saw  on  the  floor,  taking  hold  at  the  top  edge, 
giving  it  a  sudden  shake,  and  if  the  centre  vibrates  and 
the  rim  stands  stiff,  he  knows  it  to  be  open  toward  the 
centre.  After  deciding  upon  the  necessary  tension,  see 
that  the  saw  conforms  exactly  to  it  all  around  when  fin- 
ished. Now  go  over  the 
saw  again  carefully,  as 
at  the  first  operation,  and 
mark  all  the  full  places, 
as  in  Cut  No.  5,  and  ham- 
mer alike  on  both  sides, 
with  as  nearly  as  possi- 
ble the  same  number  and 
weight  of  blows  as  struck 
on  the  opposite  side.  If 
the  work  has  been  prop- 
erly done,  the  saw  will 
now  show  quite  an  even 
tension  and  enough  to 
cause  the  centre  to  drop  through  or  vibrate  either  way, 
while  the  rim  remains  stiff  when  inclined  a  little  from 
a  perpendicular  position.  In  finishing  a  saw,  be  very 
careful  to  remove  all  lumps  or  ridges  near  the  rim,  by 
laying  two  or  more  thicknesses  of  heavy  paper  on  the 
anvil.  Place  the  saw  with  the  lump  or  ridge  resting 
directly  on  the  paper,  and  by  giving  a  few  well-directed, 
sharp  blows,  the  lumps  can  be  hammered  down  without 
expanding  the  metal,  and  thereby  losing  the  tension 
already  given,  which  would  be  the  result  if  placed  on 
the  bare  anvil.  The  more  evenly  and  carefully  this  is 


CUT  No.  5. 


SAWS  139 

done,  the  better  the  saw  will  run.  In  regard  to  the 
amount  of  tension  or  openings  required  for  different  size 
saws  at  different  speeds,  it  is  not  possible  to  give  a  rule 
that  will  answer  all  conditions,  as  thin  saws  require  more 
tension  than  heavier  gauge  saws,  and  the  stronger  the 
power  or  the  higher  the  speed,  the  more  tension  is  also 
required ;  and  in  cutting  hardwoods  a  saw  requires  more 
tension  than  for  soft  or  more  fibrous  woods.  Beginners 
in  the  art  of  saw  hammering  should  begin  with  a  small 
circular  cut-off  saw,  one  that  can  be  very  easily  handled. 
Go  through  with  the  operation  as  instructed,  and  after 
succeeding  in  putting  this  in  good  shape  by  hammering 
so  that  it  will  run  true  and  smooth,  without  chattering 
in  the  cut,  you  will  have  advanced  well  in  the  art  of  saw- 
hammering,  and  will  be  able  to  operate  on  larger  saws 
without  the  risk  of  failure. 


SECTION   V 


KNIVES 


KNIVES 


PKACTICAL  DISCUSSION 

THE  same  argument  may  be  applied  to  knives  as  to 
saws,  in  that  they  will  not  grind  or  sharpen  themselves, 
and  they  also  require  a  certain  amount  of  care  and  atten- 
tion in  order  that  they  may  properly  perform  the  work 
expected  of  them  in  an  economical  and  efficient  manner. 
Over  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  difficulty  experienced  with 
knives  is  directly  caused  by  their  abuse,  and  most  of  this 
abuse  is  confined  to  the  grinding  room.  There  are  many 
ways  in  which  a  knife  may  be  ruined.  In  fact,  the  better 
the  quality  of  the  knife,  the  easier  and  more  liable  it  is 
to  be  spoiled  in  grinding.  In  cases  where  the  temper  is 
drawn  in  grinding,  the  evidence  is  nearly  always  removed 
to  the  next  time  the  emery  wheel  or  grindstone  passes 
over  the  knife.  If  you  will  try  the  knife  with  a  file,  you 
will  notice  how  soft  it  is,  and  should  you  strike  the  edge 
lightly,  it  will  turn  over  completely,  while,  no  doubt,  in 
another  part  it  may  file  hard  and  break  out  easily  at  the 
slightest  touch. 

DIFFERENT  IDEAS   ON  TEMPER 

Some  operators  and  mill  men  want  their  knives  hard 
and  of  a  good  even  temper,  and  do  practically  all  of  their 
sharpening  on  the  grindstone  or  emery  wheel,  while 
others  doing  the  same  class  of  work  want  them  soft  and 
of  a  very  mild  temper,  so  that  they  can  sharpen  or  dress 
them  up  with  a  file  frequently,  without  removing  them 
from  the  machine.  Differences  of  opinion  of  this  sort 
occur  throughout  the  trade,  and  directly  is  one  of  the 
causes  of  occasional  poor  results  of  knives,  inasmuch  as 


144  COOPEEAGE 

the  knife-makers  have  about  arrived  at  a  sort  of  cosmo- 
politan temper  in  their  knives,  so  to  speak,  in  order  to 
give  good  service  under  such  varied  conditions.  In  order 
to  warrant  securing  a  knife  that  will  answer  its  purpose 
and  give  good  and  satisfactory  results,  it  is  very  essential 
that  the  knife-maker  should  know  for  what  purpose  the 
knife  is  intended,  what  speed  it  is  to  run,  and  how  it  is 
to  be  sharpened.  Whether  by  the  use  of  a  hand  file, 
grindstone  or  emery  wheel,  too  much  is  usually  taken  for 
granted  by  the  user  of  the  knife,  and  the  knife-maker  is 
commonly  left  to  use  his  own  judgment  in  the  matter. 
Knives  can  be,  and  are,  made  to  meet  almost  any  re- 
quirement and  under  all  sorts  of  conditions,  and  if  prop- 
erly used  and  taken  care  of  will  invariably  give  profitable 
results. 

SPEED  OF   KNIVES 

As  with  saws,  speed  also  has  a  varying  effect  upon 
knives,  but,  of  course,  not  with  such  effective  results; 
but  speed  should  always  be  taken  into  consideration  in 
order  that  they  may  produce  the  best  results.  A  knife 
that  will  work  successfully  on  one  machine  running  at  a 
certain  number  of  revolutions  per  minute  would  not  per- 
form as  satisfactory  or  stand  up  to  its  work  as  well  if 
run  at  100  or  more  revolutions  per  minute  more  or  less. 

TEMPEK  OF  KNIVES 

Two  things  are  very  necessary  to  produce  knives  that 
will  be  satisfactory  and  perform  good  service:  First, 
good  steel  must  be  used  in  their  construction ;  it  must  be 
of  a  proper  temper  or  carbon,  and  should  be  specially 
made  for  the  purpose.  Second,  and  the  most  important 
element,  is  the  proper  temper,  without  which  a  knife  is  of 
no  consequence.  This  one  thing,  the  tempering  of  knives, 
should  be  the  subject  of  more  thought,  experiment  and 
careful  attention  than  any  other  step  in  the  process  of 


KNIVES  145 

manufacture,  from  the  crude  ore  to  the  finished  product ; 
and  even  then  it  retains  the  greatest  degree  of  uncer- 
tainty of  any.  In  the  making  of  steel  itself,  scientific 
research  and  a  long  line  of  experiments  have  reduced  the 
work  to  a  satisfactory  degree  of  positiveness.  There 
are  flaws,  of  course,  now  and  then,  as  in  all  things,  but 
generally  speaking  we  are  in  a  position  to-day  to  know 
pretty  well  just  what  we  are  getting  in  our  steel,  what 
chemical  properties  and  what  kind  of  structure.  And  the 
process  of  manufacture  has  been  perfected  enough  that 
the  product  runs  so  nearly  uniform  as  not  to  give  serious 
trouble.  The  same  thing  is  frus  in  all  the  mechanical 
work  of  making  knives,  and  while  it  requires  care  and 
skilful  manipulation  at  all  times  to  turn  out  good,  satis- 
factory knives,  still,  that  is  comparatively  easy  to  obtain ; 
but  when  we  come  to  tempering,  we  strike  the  most  dif- 
ficult step  and  process  in  all  the  work.  This  comes  partly 
from  the  fact  that  two  pieces  of  metal  exactly  alike  in 
chemical  parts  and  physical  structure  may  be  given  what 
appears  to  be  the  same  treatment,  and  yet  produce  vary- 
ing results  in  tempering.  This  is  only  a  part  of  the 
uncertainty,  however,  and  another  part  comes  from  the 
different  uses  to  which  knives  are  put,  and  the  difference 
in  temper  required  under  these  various  conditions.  The 
problem  of  temper  met  with  at  times  would  be  materially 
simplified  if  the  knife-maker  could  know  in  each  instance 
the  exact  service  required  of  the  knife ;  that  is,  if  it  were 
a  planer  knife,  if  he  knew  just  the  kind  of  wood  it  was 
to  be  used  on,  speed  at  which  it  would  be  run,  and  average 
depth  of  cut.  If  users  of  knives  would  always  bear  this 
fact  in  mind  when  ordering  their  knives  of  the  knife- 
makers,  and  then  give  them  the  proper  attention  in 
grinding  or  sharpening,  they  would  find  that  the  knives 
would  always  perform  their  proper  amount  of  work  with 
entire  satisfaction,  as  the  knife-makers  have  made  this 


146  COOPERAGE 

matter  of  temper,  through  a  long  and  ceaseless  line  of 
experiments  and  study,  a  work  with  a  certain  degree  of 
positiveness  and  satisfaction.  And  they  can  invariably 
be  relied  upon  to  furnish  an  article  that  will  produce  the 
results  expected  under  ordinary  circumstances.  It  is 
worthy  of  remark  in  this  connection,  however,  that  users 
of  knives  are  beginning  to  realize  the  general  importance 
of  this  subject  of  tempering  to  a  certain  extent,  and  have 
more  respect  for  the  temper  that  has  been  put  into  their 
knives.  In  times  gone  by,  and  even  among  some  careless 
workmen  to-day,  there  has  been  many  a  carefully  tem- 
pered knife  practically  spoiled  by  careless  grinding. 

TEMPERING    SOLUTIONS 

1.  To  6  quarts  of  soft  water  add  1  ounce  of  corrosive 
sublimate  and  two  handfuls  of  common  salt.    When  dis- 
solved, the  mixture  is  ready  for  use.     The  first  gives 
toughness,  the  latter  hardness  to  the  steel.    Eemember 
this  is  deadly  poison. 

2.  Soft  water,  3  gallons;  common  salt,  2  quarts;  sal- 
ammoniac  and  saltpetre,  of  each  2  ounces;  ashes  from 
white  ash  bark,  1  shovelful.     Do  not  hammer  too  cold. 
To  avoid  flaws  do  not  heat  too  high,  which  opens  the 
pores  of  the  steel.    If  heated  carefully  you  will  get  hard- 
ness, toughness,  and  the  finest  quality. 

3.  Common  salt,  4  ounces ;  saltpetre,  %  ounce ;  pulver- 
ized alum,  1  ounce ;  1  gallon  soft  water.    Heat  the  articles 
to  a  cherry  red  and  quench,  but  do  not  draw  temper. 

4.  Saltpetre  and  alum,  each  2  ounces;  sal-ammoniac, 
%  ounce ;  common  salt,  1%  ounces ;  2  gallons  soft  water. 
Heat  parts  to  be  tempered  to  a  cherry  red  and  quench. 

TO   TEMPER    KNIVES 

Take  a  vessel  of  proper  width  to  receive  the  length  of 
the  knife,  put  some  water  in  the  bottom,  and  pour  an 


KNIVES  147 

inch  of  oil  on  top.  Heat  the  edge  of  your  knife  an  even 
cherry  red  back  as  far  as  you  wish  to  harden  it,  and 
holding  it  level,  thrust  the  edge  into  the  oil  for  a  moment, 
until  the  color  leaves;  then  slowly  let  it  down  into  the 
water.  The  oil  cools  without  cracking  and  the  water  pre- 
vents the  heat  in  the  body  from  drawing  the  edge.  It 
is  not  necessary  to  harden  all  knives  in  this  manner,  as 
the  oil  alone  will  produce  a  sufficient  hardness  in  ordinary 
cases  if  a  large  enough  body  of  oil  is  used  and  the  edge 
of  the  knife  is  immersed  with  a  stirring  motion.  It  can 
then  be  tempered  to  about  500  degrees  (brown-yellow 
color)  by  the  heat  of  the  body  of  the  knife  and  suddenly 
cooled  in  water  at  about  80  degrees. 

TABLE  OF  TEMPERS  TO  WHICH  TOOLS  SHOULD  BE  DKAWN 

TOOL  COLOR  DEG.  OF  TEM. 

FAHR. 

Axes Dark  purple 550 

All  cutting  tools  for  soft  material.  Very  light  yellow.  .420 

Cold  chisels  for  steel Light  purple 530 

Cold  chisels  for  wrought  iron. . .  .Light  purple 530 

Cold  chisels  for  cast  iron Dark  purple 550 

Key  drifts Brown-yellow 500 

Wood  chisels Spotted  red-brown  510 

Hammer  faces Very  pale  yellow.  .430 

Hand  plane  irons Brown-yellow 500 

Inserted  saw  teeth Straw  yellow 460 

Screwdrivers   Dark  purple 550 

Springs   Very  dark  blue ....  601 

Planer  knives Brown-yellow 500 

Planer  knives  (to  be  filed) .Purple-blue 531 

TO  TEMPER  OLD  FILES 

Grind  out  the  cuttings  on  one  side  of  the  file  until  a 
bright  surface  is  obtained ;  then  moisten  the  surface  with 
a  little  oil,  and  place  the  file  on  a  piece  of  red-hot  plate 
with  the  bright  side  upward.  In  about  a  minute  the 


148  COOPERAGE 

bright  surface  will  begin  to  turn  yellow,  and  when  the 
yellow  has  deepened  to  about  the  color  of  straw,  plunge 
in  cold  water. 

EMERY   WHEELS THEIR   USE 

The  emery  wheel  consists  of  grains  of  emery  and  a 
composition  called  the  texture,  which  binds  these  grains 
together. 

In  regard  to  the  size  of  the  grains  the  wheel  is  said 
to  be  coarse  or  fine  in  grade.  In  regard  to  its  texture 
it  is  called  hard  or  soft. 

To  distinguish  the  grades,  they  are  numbered  from 
the  dimension  of  the  meshes  through  which  the  grains 
pass. 

Thus,  grade  10  means  that  the  distance  between  the 
wires  of  the  mesh  is  10  to  the  inch. 

Some  of  the  substances  used  to  hold  the  grains  of 
emery  together  are  hard  rubber,  shellac,  ordinary  glue 
and  a  mixture  of  linseed  oil  and  litharge. 

The  relative  hardness  of  the  texture  is  indicated  by 
letters.  Thus,  A  indicates  a  soft  wheel;  B,  a  harder 
wheel ;  M,  medium  wheel,  and  so  on. 

The  vitrified  emery  wheel  is  made  with  a  cement  which 
contracts  slightly  while  cooling,  leaving  small  pores  or 
cells  through  which  water  introduced  at  the  centre  is 
thrown  to  the  surface  by  centrifugal  force.  This  flow 
of  water  operates  to  carry  off  the  cuttings  and  the  de- 
tached emery. 

The  grade  and  texture  of  the  wheel  in  certain  kinds 
of  work  is  fairly  within  the  following  limits : 

Wheels  of  coarse  grain  and  hard  texture  are  suitable 
for  rough  grinding  in  which  accuracy  and  finish  are  not 
required. 

Wheels  having  medium  grains  and  hard  texture  are 
serviceable  for  sharpening  or  gumming  saws,  etc. 


KNIVES  149 

Wheels  with  medium  grains  and  soft  texture  are  suit- 
able for  free  cutting  on  broad  surfaces  of  iron,  steel  or 
brass. 

Wheels  with  fine  grain  and  soft  texture  are  suitable 
for  grinding  fine  tools,  knives,  etc.,  for  which  the  duty 
is  light,  but  the  demand  for  accuracy  imperative. 

In  regard  to  finish,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  the  harder 
the  substance  to  be  ground,  the  coarser  must  be  the  grade 
of  the  wheel.  Some  emery  grinders  are  fitted  with  a 
east-iron  box  or  tank  to  hold  water,  with  a  small  pump  to 
force  the  water  up  to  the  emery  wheel.  This  is  an  ideal 
grinder  where  emery  wheels  are  used,  but  great  care 
should  be  exercised  that  oil  or  grease  does  not  get  into 
the  tank,  for,  should  this  occur,  and  the  oil  or  grease 
get  onto  the  emery  wheel,  that  wheel  begins  to  glaze, 
heat  and  burn.  After  oil  has  once  reached  the  emery 
wheel,  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  keep  the  face  from  glaz- 
ing, and  this  is  one  of  the  many  ways  to  ruin  a  knife. 
Frequent  use  of  the  emery-wheel  dresser  is  the  only  rem- 
edy. There  are  many  grades  and  qualities  of  emery 
wheels,  and  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  the 
proper  grade  for  your  use.  For  knife-grinding,  an 
emery  wheel  should  be  free-cutting  and  fine  of  quality; 
and  free-cutting  means  that  they  wear  out  much  faster 
than  the  wheels  that  are  hard,  and  will  heat  and  glaze. 
If  the  emery  wheel  is  too  hard,  it  will  either  draw  the 
temper  or  cause  a  ilumber  of  fine  cracks  to  appear  in  the 
face  of  the  knife.  Either  the  knife  edge  will  turn  over 
if  the  temper  is  drawn  or  break  out  if  burned  or  if  cracks 
appear.  It  is  not  always  the  case  that  the  knife  breaks 
out  the  first  time  it  is  used  after  grinding.  Sometimes 
it  is  weeks  or  months  before  the  trouble  puts  in  an  ap- 
pearance. It  is  always  best,  in  the  case  of  a  good  quality 
knife,  or  where  good,  clean  work  must  be  performed,  to 
do  the  sharpening  on  a  grindstone,  in  preference  to  the 


150 


COOPERAGE 


emery  wheel,  as  better  satisfaction  is  always  given,  and 
one  is  not  so  liable  to  heat  or  burn  the  knife.  In  all  cases 
of  knife-grinding  on  an  emery  wheel,  the  motion  should 
be  from  the  point  or  edge  to  the  heel  of  the  bevel  on  the 
knife,  as  in  this  way  you  are  less  liable  to  draw  the 
temper. 

SPEED  OP  EMEKY  WHEELS 

An  emery  wheel  can  be  run  too  fast — So  fast,  in  fact, 
that  it  will  not  cut,  and  is  also  a  very  dangerous  opera- 
tion. The  usual  speed  employed  in  ordinary  work  is  5,000 
feet  on  the  surface,  but  in  special  cases  it  is  sometimes  de- 
sirable to  run  them  at  a  lower  or  higher  rate,  according  to 
requirements;  but  5,000  feet  is  generally  considered  as 
giving  the  best  results.  And  at  this  periphery  rate  the 
stress  on  the  wheel  is  75  pounds  per  square  inch.  The 
flanges  for  an  emery  wheel  should  be  at  least  one-third 
the  diameter  of  the  wheel,  and  one-half  the  diameter  of 
the  wheel  would  be  more  desirable.  Wheels  should 
"never"  be  mounted  unless  the  bore  is  an  easy  fit,  and 
the  flanges  the  proper  size,  so  as  to  insure  against  un- 
necessary accidents.  Below  will  be  found  a  table  of  speeds 
for  emery  wheels,  as  recommended  by  the  leading  emery- 
wheel  manufacturers  as  safe,  and  at  which  the  best  re- 
sults are  obtained : 


REV.  PER 

REV.  PER 

REV.  PER 

REV.  PER 

REV.  PER 

REV.  PER 

DlAM. 

MINUTE 

MINUTE 

MINUTE 

DlAM. 

MINUTE 

MINUTE 

MINUTE 

FOB 

FOR 

FOR 

FOR 

FOR 

FOR 

OF 

SURFACE 

SURFACE 

SURFACE 

OF 

SURFACE 

SURFACE 

SURFACE 

WHBEL 

SPEED  OF 

SPEED  OF 

SPEED  OF 

WHEEL 

SPEED  OF 

SPEED  OF 

SPEED  OF 

4,000  FEET 

5,000  FEET 

6,000  FEET 

4,000  FEET 

5,000  FEET 

6,000  FEET 

3  inches 

5093 

6366 

7639 

24  inches 

637 

796 

955 

4 

3820 

4775 

5730 

26 

586 

733 

879 

5 

3056 

3820 

4584 

28 

546 

683 

819 

6 

2546 

3183 

3820 

30 

509 

637 

764 

7 

2183 

2728 

3274 

32 

477 

596 

716 

8 

1910 

2387 

2865 

34 

449 

561 

674 

10 

1528 

1910 

2292 

36 

424 

531 

637 

12 

1273 

1592 

1910 

38 

402 

503 

603 

14 

1091 

1364 

1637 

40 

382 

478 

573 

16 

95r> 

1194 

1432 

12 

364 

455 

546 

18 

849 

1061 

1273 

44 

347 

434 

521 

20 

764 

955 

1146 

46 

332 

415 

498 

22 

694 

868 

1042 

48 

318 

397 

477 

SECTION   VI 


PRODUCTION  OF  SLACK 
COOPERAGE  STOCK 


SLACK   STOCK  PRODUCTION 


GENEKAL   KEMAKKS 

To  the  average  citizen,  a  barrel  is  simply  "a  barrel/' 
and  he  rarely  thinks  of  the  important  part  it  plays  in 
many  industries  of  to-day.  He  never  stops  to  think  how 
seriously  trade  would  be  handicapped  if  the  barrel  sup- 
ply were  suddenly  to  give  out.  But  a  moment's  thought 
will  serve  to  convince  the  most  sceptical  that  the  "homely 
barrel7 '  is  a  more  important  factor  in  industry  than  it  is 
sometimes  credited  with  being.  This  is  particularly  true 
of  the  "slack  barrel,"  as  they  were  in  use  long  before 
King  Solomon's  Temple  was  thought  of,  as  "meal  bar- 
rels" are  mentioned  in  the  good  Book  in  several  places, 
and  no  doubt  were  made  about  910  years  B.  C.  More 
than  eighteen  hundred  years  ago  Pliny,  an  original  in- 
vestigator, who  lost  his  life  trying  to  find  out  what  made 
a  volcano  smoke,  endeavored  to  trace  to  its  origin  an 
industry  that  was  even  then  ancient  and  honorable.  In 
time  he  located  a  race  of  people  engaged  in  the  industry 
at  the  foot  of  the  Alps. — "And  invented  and  pursued  by 
a  people  regarded  with  awe,  as  a  superior  race,  by  the 
tribes  who  near  them  did  dwell,  but  who  could  .not  tell 
when  'they'  did  begin."  In  the  cooperage  industry  to- 
day there  are  two  classes  of  barrels,  commonly  termed 
by  their  users  ' l  tight  barrels ' '  and  ' i  slack  barrels. ' '  This 
volume  will  deal  exclusively  with  the  latter  class,  which 
is  designated  "slack"  from  the  fact  that  they  are  only 
used  to  hold  commodities  which  are  not  in  liquid  form, 
such  as  sugar,  flour,  salt,  cement,  fruit,  and  vegetables. 
The  woods  used  for  its  construction  are  chiefly  elm,  pine, 


154  COOPERAGE 

gurn,  beech,  and  basswood,  named  in  the  order  of  their 
importance.  Some  thirty  or  forty  years  ago  the  only 
wood  used  to  any  great  extent  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
slack  barrel  was  oak,  but  the  upward  trend  in  value  of 
that  wood  caused  the  trade  to  change  first  to  elm,  which 
was  then  known  as  the  (l  patent  elm  stave, "  and  then,  in 
time,  as  elm  became  scarcer  and  more  valuable,  to 
beech,  maple,  sycamore,  gum,  and  a  number  of  other  dif- 
ferent woods  which  are  in  use  to-day.  But  on  account 
of  its  great  strength  and  toughness,  elm  has  long  been 
the  principal  and  favorite  wood  used  for  staves  and 
hoops,  and  it  will  continue  to  remain  so  until  the  supply 
is  exhausted.  The  production  of  elm  staves  has  decreased 
over  fifty  per  cent  in  the  last  seven  years.  Elm  is  cut 
most  largely  in  the  Northern  States,  and  particularly  in 
Wisconsin,  Indiana,  and  Michigan,  and  the  exhaustion  of 
the  supply  in  those  States  has  had  a  most  serious  effect 
upon  the  slack  cooperage  industry.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  there  are  not  half  the  staves  manufactured  in  Mich- 
igan at  the  present  writing  that  there  were  ten  years  ago. 
Saginaw,  Mich.,  which  formerly  was  considered  the  prin- 
cipal home  of  the  industry,  is  now  producing  stock  only 
in  a  small  way.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  most  of  the  slack 
cooperage  stock  made  in  Michigan  at  this  time  comes 
from  the  northern  peninsula,  instead  of  the  southern 
peninsula,  as  was  formerly  the  case.  There  has  been  a 
very  great  increase  in  the  use  of  gum  for  staves,  and 
more  so  for  heading,  within  the  last  few  years,  in  fact, 
since  the  year  1900,  when  this  wood  made  its  initial  ap- 
pearance. Owing  to  its  cheapness  and  abundant  supply, 
it  was  experimented  with  and  found  to  be  quite  satis- 
factory when  care  was  taken  in  its  seasoning.  Bass- 
wood  has  always  been  the  preferred  wood  for  heading, 
because  of  its  soft,  even  texture  and  light  color,  but  it 
is  now  gradually  being  replaced  by  gum,  which  is  no 


SLACK   STOCK  PRODUCTION  155 

doubt  destined  to  be  the  most  important  wood  of  the 
future  in  the  manufacture  of  the  slack  barrel.  In  fact, 
it  is  now  ranked  as  second  to  elm,  both  as  a  stave  and 
as  a  heading  wood.  For  the  manufacture  of  hoops  it  has 
not  thus  far  proved  adaptable,  and  will  hardly  answer 
for  this  purpose,  on  account  of  its  peculiar  properties, 
and  from  the  fact  that  it  splits  easily  and  is  quite  brash. 

PEODUCTION  OF  SLACK  STOCK 

The  complete  report  of  the  United  States  Forest  Ser- 
vice on  the  production  of  slack  cooperage  stock  for  the 
year  1908  gives  detailed  statistics  on  the  output  of  1,151 
establishments,  as  against  950  for  the  preceding  year. 
This  substantial  increase  in  the  number  of  establishments 
reporting  for  1908,  as  compared  with  1907,  indicates  not 
only  a  more  thorough  canvass,  but  also  a  greater  degree 
of  co-operation  on  the  part  of  the  manufacturers  in  the 
latter  year,  and  largely  as  a  result  the  statistics  of  the 
industry  show  general  increases  in  quantity  and  value 
over  previous  years,  despite  the  fact  that  industrial  con- 
ditions obtaining  were  unfavorable.  The  data  were  ob- 
tained entirely  by  correspondence,  and  the  better  results 
secured  at  this  canvass,  as  compared  with  those  secured 
at  any  previous  canvass,  are  due  to  the  fact  that  a  prac- 
tically complete  list  of  manufacturers  was  compiled  in 
advance,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  manufacturers  made 
much  more  satisfactory  reports.  Since  statistics  on  this 
industry  have  only  recently  been  compiled  in  a  compre- 
hensive manner,  it  is  impossible  to  draw  conclusions  as 
to  the  relative  completeness  of  the  returns.  But  as  these 
are  the  only  available  statistics  to  be  had  on  this  impor- 
tant subject,  we  will  necessarily  have  to  be  content  with 
them  as  they  are.  Slack  cooperage  stock  comprises,  the 
three  materials  essential  to  the  manufacture  of  a  slack 
barrel,  namely,  staves,  heading,  and  hoops. 


156  COOPEEAGE 

In  aggregate  value  the  reported  production  of  these 
commodities  in  1908  exceeded  that  of  1907  by  $1,100,398, 
or  very  nearly  7  per  cent.,  the  increase  being  from  $15,- 
800,253  to  $16,900,651.  The  three  branches  of  the  slack 
cooperage  industry  are  not  co-ordinated,  the  manufac- 
ture of  staves,  heading,  and  hoops,  respectively,  consti- 
tuting to  a  large  extent  separate  and  independent  indus- 
tries. Consequently,  the  totals  of  production  of  the  three 
commodities  in  any  one  year  seldom  harmonize.  The 
tendency  through  a  series  of  years,  however,  is  toward  ah 
equalization  or  balancing  in  production.  Combining  the 
totals  of  production  for  several  years  practically  elim- 
inates the  seeming  inconsistencies  and  shows  stave  and 
hoop  production  for  substantially  the  same  number  of 
barrels,  with  an  excess  of  heading,  a  large  part  of  which 
was  probably  consumed  in  repairing  second-hand  barrels. 
An  interesting  fact  disclosed  by  the  statistics  of  the  last 
few  years  is  the  increasing  number  of  establishments 
which  turn  out  staves  and  heading  as  by-products  in  the 
manufacture  of  lumber. 

WOODS  CHIEFLY  USED  FOR  SLACK  COOPERAGE 

Table  I  summarizes  the  production  of  staves,  head- 
ing, and  hoops,  and  shows  the  total  manufactured  from 
each  species,  with  the  average  value  per  1,000  for  the 
years  1906,  1907  and  1908.  The  total  reported  produc- 
tion for  the  year  1908  was  1,557,644,000  staves,  valued 
at  $8,912,957,  or  $5.72  per  1,000  staves ;  123,849,000  sets 
of  heading,  valued  at  $5,661,713,  an  average  of  a  little 
more  than  4%  cents  per  set ;  336,484,000  hoops,  valued  at 
$2,325,981,  or  $6.91  per  1,000.  Staves  were  manufactured 
in  considerable  quantities  from  nineteen  different  kinds 
of  wood.  The  most  important  of  these  was  red  gum, 
which  furnished  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  number, 
which  was  to  be  expected,  as  this  species  is  rapidly  super- 


SLACK  STOCK  PEODUCTION  157 

seding  elm  and  all  others  as  a  stave  and  heading  wood. 
Next  in  importance  come  pine,  elm,  beech  and  maple, 
in  the  order  as  stated.  These  five  species  furnished  prac- 
tically three-quarters  of  the  total  number  manufactured. 
The  total  production  of  staves  reported,  for  1908  ex- 
ceeded that  reported  for  1907  by  381,667,000,  or  32.5  per 
cent.  There  was  an  increase  of  17,775,000  sets  of  head- 
ing, or  16.8  per  cent.  Nineteen  kinds  of  wood  were  in 
1908  used  in  sufficient  quantities  in  the  manufacture  of 
staves  and  heading  to  be  separately  shown;  tamarack, 
tupelo,  willow,  and  yellow  poplar  having  been  included 
under  "all  other "  woods  in  1907.  Fewer  slack  barrel 
staves  of  spruce,  hemlock,  basswood,  and  yellow  poplar 
were  manufactured  in  1908  than  in  1907,  while  there  were 
increases  in  all  other  woods.  For  red  gum  the  increase 
amounted  to  50.4  per  cent. ;  for  pine,  33.7  per  cent. ;  for 
elm,  21.7  per  cent.;  for  beech,  32.7  per  cent.,  and  for 
maple,  28.2  per  cent.  Although  relatively  large  increases 
occurred  in  many  other  kinds  of  wood,  in  no  case  did  the 
quantity  of  staves  manufactured  from  any  of  such  woods 
form  as  much  as  6  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  manu- 
factured in  1908.  The  five  kinds  of  wood  which  had  a 
production  of  more  than  97,000,000  staves  each  in  both 
1907  and  1908  ranked  as  follows  in  the  two  years:  Eed 
gum,  pine,  elm,  beech,  and  maple.  In  1908  these  woods 
furnished  1,076,267,000  staves,  or  69.1  per  cent,  of  the 
total  number  produced  in  that  year,  and  only  about  100,- 
000,000  staves  less  than  the  total  number  manufactured 
during  1907.  Eed  gum  staves  formed  20.4  per  cent,  of 
the  total  production  in  1908;  pine,  17.7  per  cent.;  elm, 
12.4  per  cent. ;  beech,  10.7  per  cent. ;  maple,  8  per  cent. ; 
and  chestnut,  5.1  per  cent. 

In  the  manufacture  of  heading,  only  elm,  beech,  ash, 
spruce,  oak,  and  sycamore  showed  decreases,  as  com- 
pared to  1907.  No  decrease,  however,  amounted  to  more 


158 


COOPERAGE 


>  o  g>  oo  o  co  co 


Oi  O  <N  CO  t-(M  CO  t-  O  00  CQ  O»       I      ICO 

i-H  CO  C~  00  rH  O5  Ift  (>J  rH  •*  «D  CO       T      Im 

m  i>  •*  to  co  <N  co  o  f-  os  I-H  co     I    ;  o 


iiHOS         (M  rH  (M  C*  Ol 


,-lCOCOGO-H  COO 
O  (N^  00  CO^  l>  <O^  -^ 
t~\no£sO~tGZ'*£ 
r-lt-05COfMt-l> 
CO  (M  rH  iH  rH 


I  00  £>  CO  rH  •«*<  O*  •*  < 


o   o  -    a*  r?t  cc  in  r  as  tt  as  o  if  o 

O-^HlOf— iOOCQ'^its^t~C^t-O*CC-^' 


SLACK   STOCK  PKODUCTION  159 

than  4,187,000  sets,  while  the  increase  in  pine  alone  was 
over  12,000,000  sets.  As  with  staves,  so  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  heading,  five  principal  woods  were  used.  Though 
the  same  woods  are  generally  used  for  both  purposes,  in 
heading  pine  ranked  first,  with  31.8  per  cent,  of  the  total 
production;  red  gum  second,  with  13.9  per  cent.;  beech 
third,  with  12.3  per  cent.;  maple  fourth,  with  10.8  per 
cent.;  and  basswood  fifth,  with  8.2  per  cent.  The  pro- 
duction from  these  woods  was  95,399,000  sets,  or  77  per 
cent,  of  the  total.  In  the  production  of  hoops  only  ten 
kinds  of  wood  were  reported  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
warrant  a  separate  presentation  for  1908.  Of  these,  red 
gum,  ash,  and  beech,  which  latter  wood  was  not  separately 
tabulated  in  1907,  showed  increases  in  1908,  as  compared 
with  1907.  In  elm  alone  there  was  a  decrease  of  $142,- 
840,000,  or  nearly  93  per  cent,  of  the  decrease  in  the  total 
production  of  hoops  for  the  year.  This  is  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  the  elm  hoop  is  being  fast  supplanted  by 
wire  and  flat  steel  hoops. 

Table  II  shows  the  quantity,  value,  and  average  value 
per  thousand  of  staves,  hoops,  and  sets  of  heading  pro- 
duced in  1908  from  the  different  kinds  of  wood.  The 
aggregate  value  of  the  reported  production  of  staves, 
heading,  and  hoops  in  1908  was  $16,900,651,  an  increase 
of  $1,100,398,  or  nearly  7  per  cent.,  over  the  value  of  these 
products  in  1907.  In  average  value  per  thousand  at  point 
of  production,  staves  decreased  from  $6.14  in  1907  to 
$5.72  in.  1908,  or  a  decrease  of  42  cents.  Among  the 
individual  species,  the  decreases,  while  general,  were  in 
the  most  instances  small. 

Ash,  for  which  the  highest  average  value,  $7.96,  was 
reported  in  1907,  decreased  to  $6.52  in  1908,  while  the 
loss  in  elm — the  next  highest  species  in  1907 — was  from 
$7.53  to  $7.16  per  thousand  staves.  Among  other  impor- 
tant woods  the  decreases  were  as  follows:  Bed  gum, 


160 


COOPEBAGE 


TH  GO  «o  o  co  ,*' 


oooo 


82 


02     * 
O       4) 


S      9  S  8 

C*  Oi    "**•    «O 


O    (>i    CO    GO 


if 


«J  co 


eJ  co 


rH   O   ^ 


3  o  8 

r^-  z>T  vo 

lf^  rH  t> 

^  CO  d 


SLACK   STOCK   PRODUCTION  161 

from  $5.88  to  $5.45;  pine,  from  $5.17  to  $4.88;  beech, 
from  $6.31  to  $6.27;  maple,  from  $6.27  to  $6.02;  while 
for  spruce  the  average  value  per  thousand,  $5.14,  was 
the  same  in  both  years. 

Although  the  production  of  heading  was  greater  in 
1908,  the  average  value  per  set  showed  a  decrease 
from  .0477  in  1907  to  .0457  in  1908,  or  .0200  per  set. 
This  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  gum  is  rapidly 
superseding  other  species  as  a  heading  wood.  The 
greatest  loss  in  value  occurred  in  cottonwood,  the  de- 
crease in  average  value  per  set  of  heading  cut  from 
this  species  amounting  to  .0110,  while  for  pine,  the  prin- 
cipal species  consumed  in  slack  barrel  heading  manufac- 
ture, the  decrease  was  .0072  per  set.  Practically  the  only 
woods  which  showed  increases  in  value  were  oak,  ash, 
beech,  spruce,  and  sycamore;  but  only  a  relatively  small 
quantity  of  sycamore  was  manufactured.  The  highest 
average  value,  .0610,  in  1908,  was  reported  for  ash,  and 
the  lowest  average  value,  .0335,  for  pine. 

In  both  quantity  and  value  the  hoop  production  in  1908 
was  less  than  that  reported  for  the  preceding  year.  The 
principal  wood  used  in  the  manufacture  of  hoops  in  1908, 
as  formerly,  was  elm,  97.1  per  cent,  of  the  total  number 
being  made  from  this  species.  Only  four  other  kinds  of 
wood  were  used  to  any  considerable  extent ;  and  these,  in 
the  order  named,  were  red  gum,  ash,  hickory,  and  birch. 
The  highest  average  value  per  thousand  hoops,  $11.42, 
was  reported  for  red  gum,  while  the  lowest,  $3.75,  was 
reported  for  maple.  With  respect  to  the  average  value 
per  thousand  hoops,  both  oak  and  maple  showed  increases 
in  1908,  as  compared  with  1907,  while  elm  showed  a  loss. 
In  the  case  of  the  total  production  from  all  woods  a  de- 
crease of  26  cents  occurred.  This  decrease  in  value  was 
probably  due  in  part  to  the  increased  use  of  wire  and 
flat  steel  hoops. 


162  COOPERAGE 

In  connection  with  the  value  of  staves,  heading,  and 
hoops,  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  various  forms  into 
which  slack  cooperage  stock  is  manufactured,  and  the 
woods  used  for  these  forms.  Flour  and  sugar  barrels 
represent  the  highest  grades  manufactured,  and  after 
these  come  cement,  lime,  and  salt  barrels.  Inferior 
grades  are  those  barrels  which  are  known  as  truck  bar- 
rels, used  for  fruit  and  vegetables  of  many  kinds  and  for 
crockery  and  glassware,  and  the  barrels  and  kegs  used 
in  the  hardware  trade.  Butter  tubs,  although  not  con- 
sidered of  so  high  a  grade  as  flour  or  sugar  barrels,  are 
hardly  a  low-grade  product. 

In  the  East  white  ash  and  spruce  are  used  exten- 
sively for  butter-tub  staves,  and  elm,  maple,  and  bass- 
wood  for  bottoms  and  covers.  Elm  is  used  largely 
in  the  manufacture  of  the  highest  grade  barrel,  while 
pine  is  used  largely  for  the  inferior  grades.  Gum  makes 
a  clean,  smooth  stave,  and  its  value  is  now  being  appre- 
ciated as  a  result  of  more  careful  methods  of  season- 
ing and  manufacture.  This  is  clearly  shown  by  the 
increased  production  of  staves  from  this  wood.  Con- 
siderable attention  of  late  has  been  drawn  to  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  sack  for  the  slack  barrel.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  for  many  of  the  lower  grades  of  packages 
this  will  help  to  solve  the  problem  of  timber  supply, 
though  for  certain  products  and  classes  of  shipment  a 
wooden  barrel  is  much  preferred.  Crates,  boxes,  and 
baskets  have  in  recent  years  been  used  to  a  large  extent 
in  the  transportation  of  many  of  the  fruits  and  vegetables 
which  were  formerly  transported  in  barrels. 

SLACK  BAKREL  STAVE  PRODUCTION 

Table  III  shows  the  production  of  staves  in  the  differ- 
ent States  by  kinds  of  wood.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
slack  barrel  staves  manufactured  are  produced  in  the 


SLACK  STOCK  PRODUCTION 


163 


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COOPERAGE 


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SLACK   STOCK  PRODUCTION 


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166  COOPEBAGE 

following  States,  named  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
from  a  standpoint  of  quantity:  Arkansas,  Pennsylvania, 
Michigan,  Virginia,  and  Missouri.  In  the  production  of 
elm  staves  Michigan  leads,  followed  by  Ohio,  Illinois,  and 
Missouri.  These  four  States  produce  the  bulk  of  this 
stock.  Maple  staves  are  produced  chiefly  in  Michigan 
and  Pennsylvania.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  total  number 
of  pine  staves  is  produced  in  Virginia.  This  gives  Vir- 
ginia her  rank  of  fourth  place  in  order  of  importance 
for  number  of  staves.  Missouri  leads  in  the  manufacture 
of  gum  .staves,  producing  more  than  one-third  of  the  total 
manufactured,  followed  by  Arkansas  and  Illinois.  The 
oak  staves,  practically  all  of  which  are  some  form  of 
red  oak,  are  manufactured  chiefly  in  Virginia  and  Ten- 
nessee. Chestnut  staves  are  manufactured  almost  en- 
tirely in  Pennsylvania,  which  produced  over  two-thirds 
of  the  total  manufactured.  Beech  and  birch  staves  are 
also  manufactured  chiefly  in  Pennsylvania,  as  nearly  one- 
half  of  the  total  number  come  from  that  State.  Ash 
staves  are  produced  mostly  in  Arkansas.  Maine  ranks 
first  in  spruce  staves,  having  produced  over  80  per  cent, 
of  the  total  manufactured.  The  quantity  manufactured 
from  the  other  species  in  that  State  is  comparatively  un- 
important. Delaware,  Maryland,  and  Florida,  as  re- 
ported, manufacture  pine  staves  exclusively. 

SLACK  BARREL  HEADING  PRODUCTION 

Table  IV  shows  that  the  total  production  of  heading 
for  1908  was  123,849,000  sets,  thirty-five  States  and  Ter- 
ritories reporting;  but  Michigan  and  Arkansas  were  the 
centres  of  manufacture.  Michigan  led  with  18.2  per  cent, 
of  the  total  number  of  sets  of  heading,  and  Arkansas 
came  second,  with  16.5  per  cent.  In  1907  Michigan  and 
Pennsylvania  were  the  leading  States,  but  in  1908  their 
heading  production  had  decreased  3.2  per  cent,  and  8.1 


SLACK   STOCK  PRODUCTION  167 

per  cent.,  respectively,  and  the  production  in  Arkansas 
had  increased  241.1  per  cent.  In  the  production  of  red 
gum  heading  Missouri  was  the  leading  State,  with  34.5 
per  cent.,  followed  by  Arkansas,  with  20.6  per  cent.,  and 
Kentucky,  with  18.8  per  cent.  Of  the  pine  heading,  39.4 
per  cent,  was  made  in  Arkansas,  while  Virginia  and  New 
Hampshire  were  close  rivals  for  second  place,  with  16.5 
per  cent,  and  16.2  per  cent.,  respectively,  of  the  total  pro- 
duction. Michigan  reported  56.1  per  cent,  of  the  beech 
heading  and  59.7  per  cent,  of  the  maple  heading,  while 
Pennsylvania  ranked  second  in  both  of  these  kinds  of 
wood,  with  31.4  per  cent,  of  the  former  and  15.1  per  cent, 
of  the  latter.  The  only  other  wood  of  which  more  than 
10,000,000  sets  were  produced  was  basswood,  and  of  the 
total  production  of  this  wood  Wisconsin  reported  53.5 
per  cent,  and  Michigan  20.6  per  cent.  Over  three-fourths 
of  the  entire  heading  production  of  Arkansas  was  pine. 
From  Michigan  a  large  number  of  woods  were  reported, 
the  chief  kinds  being  beech,  maple,  and  basswood.  In 
Pennsylvania  the  principal  woods  were  beech,  maple,  and 
birch,  while  in  Virginia  pine  was  practically  the  only 
wood  used,  although  several  other  kinds  of  wood  were 
reported  in  small  quantities. 

SLACK  BARREL  HOOP  PRODUCTION 

Table  V  shows  the  production  of  slack  barrel  hoops 
in  1908  by  States  and  by  kinds  of  wood.  In  distinct  con- 
trast to  slack  stave  and  heading  manufacture,  the  hoop 
production  is  to  a  large  extent  localized  and  the  sources 
of  material  limited  to  a  relatively  small  number  of  spe- 
cies. Of  the  total  number  reported  for  the  United  States 
(336,484,000)  elm  is  credited  with  a  production  of  326,- 
894,000,  or  97.1  per  cent.  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Indiana 
together  reported  277,121,000,  or  82.4  per  cent.  No  wood 
besides  elm  was  reported  as  forming  more  than  1  per 


168 


COOPERAGE 


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SLACK   STOCK   PEODUCTION  169 

cent,  of  the  total  amount.  Kentucky  produced  60  per 
cent,  of  the  hickory  hoops,  while  New  York  led  in  the 
production  of  maple  and  chestnut  hoops.  Michigan  pro- 
duced 46.7  per  cent,  of  the  ash  hoops,  and  Maine  66.7 
per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  birch  hoops.  The  elm 
hoop  production  was  reported  from  13  States,  though 
83.8  per  cent,  of  the  production  from  this  kind  of  wood 
was  manufactured  in  three  States — Ohio,  Michigan,  and 
Indiana.  While  the  elm  hoop  maintains  its  prestige  over 
other  woods,  iron  in  late  years,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
has  supplanted  wood  as  hoop  material  for  certain  kinds 
of  slack  barrels.  Elm  as  a  wood  is  especially  adapted 
to  the  manufacture  of  hoops,  on  account  of  its  great 
toughness  and  flexibility,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  it  will  ever  be  superseded  by  any  other  wood. 
Hickory  would  possibly  be  as  acceptable  if  it  grew  in 
sufficient  quantities  and  could  be  manufactured  cheaply 
enough  to  compete  with  elm.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that 
in  the  future  all  slack  barrels  will  be  bound  with  either 
wire  or  flat  steel  hoops.  * 

KEVIEW  OF  FOKEST  REPORT 

From  a  study  of  this  forest  report,  it  will  be  seen  that 
it  shows  red  gum  as  ranking  first  in  the  quantity  of  staves 
manufactured,  it  having  exceeded  pine  by  nearly  42,000,- 
000,  and  elm  by  125,000,000,  while  for  the  year  previous, 
1907,  it  only  exceeded  pine  by  5,000,000,  and  elm  by  52,- 
000,000  staves,  showing  that  red  gum  is  rapidly  coming 
into  favor  as  a  stave  and  heading  wood.  This  was  to  be 
expected ;  in  fact,  gum  is  destined  to  be  the  future  wood 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  slack  barrel.  As  a  head- 
ing wood  red  gum  ranked  second  in  1908,  having  moved 
up  from  fourth  place  in  1907,  being  exceeded  by  pine  in 
1908  by  over  22,000,000  sets.  No  doubt  pine  has  also 
been  growing  in  prominence  in  the  slack  cooperage  in- 


170  COOPEEAGE 

dustry,  in  fact,  more  than  it  has  been  given  credit  for, 
and  must  have  been  favored  for  other  cooperage  pur- 
poses besides  salt  and  lime  barrels.  From  this  report 
it  will  be  seen  that  more  than  one-half  of  these  pine 
staves  and  16.5  per  cent,  of  the  heading  produced  are 
manufactured  in  the  State  of  Virginia,  and  is  the  cause 
of  Virginia  taking  fourth  place  in  the  rank  of  States, 
according  to  the  quantity  of  staves  and  heading  produced, 
and  it  gives  Virginia  much  more  prominence  in  the  slack 
cooperage  trade  than  one  might  judge  it  had  from  a  re- 
view of  the  markets. 

About  one-half  of  the  total  production  of  staves  as 
reported,  were  manufactured  in  the  following  four  States, 
named  in  the  order  of  the  quantity  produced:  Arkansas, 
Pennsylvania,  Michigan,  and  Virginia.  Red  gum  comes 
principally  from  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  these  two  States 
having  furnished  96.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  production 
of  staves.  Elm,  maple,  and  hemlock  are  mostly  manu- 
factured in  Michigan,  while  Pennsylvania  ranks  first  in 
the  production  of  beech,  chestnut  and  birch  staves,  and 
Arkansas  and  Missouri  are  the  main  sources  of  supply 
of  the  ash  staves.  Maine  ranks  first  in  spruce,  having 
furnished  about  81.7  per  cent,  of  the  entire  production. 
Michigan  ranks  first  in  the  manufacture  of  heading,  with 
Arkansas  a  close  second,  Pennsylvania  third,  and  Vir- 
ginia fourth.  These  four  States  furnish  practically  one- 
half  of  the  total  heading  production.  Ohio  ranks  first  as 
a  producer  of  hoops,  leading  Michigan,  which  comes  sec- 
ond, by  nearly  28,000,000  hoops,  Indiana  being  third, 
these  three  States  being  the  principal  hoop  centres,  hav- 
ing furnished  81.8  per  cent,  of  the  total  production.  It 
may  be  possible  that  these  figures  as  to  exact  source  of 
supply  may  be  affected  somewhat  by  the  headquarters 
or  the  selling  points  of  certain  hoop  mills  being  located 
in  the  cities  of  the  States  named,  and  the  reports  emanat- 


SLACK   STOCK  PRODUCTION  171 

ing  therefrom  instead  of  direct  from  the  different  mills. 
The  item  of  hoops  admittedly  does  not  take  into  due  con- 
sideration large  quantities  of  hand-shaved  hoops  of  hick- 
ory and  other  woods  which  are  made  by  farmers  and 
others  who  are  not  classed  as  manufacturers,  and  con- 
sequently do  not  furnish  reports.  The  most  remarkable 
point  about  this  forest  report,  and  the  two  unexpected 
conditions  found  therein.  One  is  the  fact  that  it  has  red 
gum  as  ranking  second  to  elm  as  a  hoop  wood  and  as  to 
quantity  produced,  and  the  other  and  most  astonishing 
feature  is  the  high  price  obtained  for  them,  it  ranking 
first  in  value,  being  $11.42  per  thousand;  while  hickory, 
oak  and  elm,  admittedly  the  better  wood  for  hoops,  rank 
second,  third,  and  eighth,  respectively.  And  also  that  it 
ranks  pine  as  being  fifth  in  value,  while  ash,  elm  and 
chestnut  rank  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth,  respectively. 


SECTION   VII 


HARVESTING 
RAW  MATERIAL 


HARVESTING   RAW  MATERIAL 

THE  harvesting  of  raw  material  for  the  production  of 
slack  cooperage  stock  is  a  matter  which  few  cooperage 
concerns  have  succeeded  in  reducing  to  a  scientific  sys- 
tem. Of  course,  each  manager  will  inaugurate  details 
that  are  best  suited  to  his  locality  and  that  he  can  best 
manage.  But  some  general  rules  will  apply  to  all.  First, 
never  allow  the  supply  of  timber  to  become  exhausted 
when  conditions  will  warrant  the  full  operation  of  the 
factory.  Second,  do  not  overstock  with  raw  material  to 
such  an  extent  that  some  of  it  will  rot  and  become  worth- 
less before  it  is  worked  up  into  the  finished  material. 
Third,  do  not  purchase  or  transport  to  the  mill  such  raw 
material  that  will  not  work  up  economically  into  that  for 
which  it  is  intended.  It  does  not  pay  to  allow  the  supply 
of  raw  material  to  become  exhausted  at  the  mill  when 
there  is  a  demand  for  the  finished  product,  because  there 
are  always  certain  fixed  expenses  which  must  be  met, 
such  as  taxes,  insurance,  salaries,  and  maintenance  of 
plant,  etc.,  whether  the  factory  is  producing  its  revenue 
or  not.  And  the  larger  the  concern,  the  heavier  this  fixed 
expense  becomes,  and  this  must  all  be  earned  when  the 
mill  is  again  in  operation.  Hence  the  necessity  of  keeping 
the  machinery  at  work  when  there  is  a  demand  for  the  fin- 
ished product.  If  an  overstock  of  raw  material  for  any 
particular  class  of  cooperage  stock  is  purchased  or  logged 
and  kept  on  hand  too  long,  its  value  becomes  impaired  by 
rot,  sun  checks,  etc.,  and  often  the  wood  becomes  so  hard 
through  seasoning  that  it  is  more  difficult  and  expensive 
to  work,  whereas,  had  it  been  worked  promptly  when  it 
was  green  and  fresh  from  the  tree,  it  would  have  been 


176  COOPERAGE 

handled  with  greater  profit  and  less  waste,  to  say  noth- 
ing about  the  convenience. 

The  near  approach  of  the  time  when  it  will  be  inex- 
pedient or  impossible  to  manufacture  slack  staves  from 
elm  or  slack  barrel  heading  from  basswood  makes  the 
question  of  producing  them  from  other  woods,  such 
as  beech,  birch,  maple,  and  gum,  one  of  great  impor- 
tance and  interest.  Cottonwood  timber  as  a  stave 
proposition  is  also  a  thing  of  the  past,  or  nearly  so; 
in  fact,  it  is  in  about  the  same  position  as  elm,  and 
it  is  only  a  matter  of  a  very  short  time  when  cotton- 
wood  staves,  as  well  as  elm  staves,  will  be  produced  in 
very  small  quantities.  Some  of  the  woods  that  produce 
excellent  slack  cooperage  stock  rot  or  decay  rapidly  un- 
less continuously  kept  immersed  in  the  log  pond.  Differ- 
ent species  differ  in  their  resistance  to  decay;  for  in- 
stance, basswood  is  more  durable  than  pine  in  this  re- 
spect, and  oak  is  better  than  beech,  but  in  most  cases  the 
conditions  of  warmth  and  moisture  in  particular  loca- 
tions have  much  to  do  with  its  durability.  So  much  so, 
in  fact,  that  predictions  as  to  its  durability  become  mere 
guesswork.  Sapwood  of  any  particular  species  is  always 
more  subject  to  decay  than  the  heartwood,  and  doubly 
so  where  the  latter  is  protected  by  resinous  substances, 
such  as  in  pine  and  cedar.  In  fact,  all  woods  that  con- 
tain thick  sap,  such  as  gum,  sycamore,  poplar,  etc.,  are 
more  liable  to  decay  and  rot  than  woods  that  have  a 
thinner  sap.  It  would  be  impossible  to  operate  a  stave 
or  heading  mill  profitably  and  waste  the  sap  portion  of 
the  timber.  It  has  been  found  that  several  months'  im- 
mersion in  water  improves  the  durability  of  sapwood  to 
a  considerable  extent,  but  only  impregnation  with  pre- 
servative salts  seems  to  render  it  perfectly  secure,  and 
this  operation  is  entirely  out  of  the  question.  But  wood 
kept  immersed  in  water  will  remain  practically  the  same 


HARVESTING  RAW  MATERIAL 


177 


178  COOPEEAGE 

for  centuries.  It  is  only  when  living  organisms  attack 
it  with  their  strong  solvents  and  convertants  that  change 
and  decay  set  in. 

This  impresses  one  with  the  fact  that  too  much  atten- 
tion cannot  be  given  to  the  care  of  the  logs  before  they 
are  sawn  or  worked  up  into  stock  in  order  to  secure  the 
maximum  amount  of  timber  with  the  least  possible  waste ; 
and  it  has  been  proven  that  in  the  ordinary  run  of  mills, 
only  about  50  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  contents  of  the  log 
which  goes  into  the  mill  finally  emerges  in  the  manufac- 
tured form  of  the  finished  product.  And  that  in  the  case 
of  heading,  only  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  actual  volume 
of  the  log  finally  goes  into  the  barrel  head,  leaving  the 
enormous  waste  of  75  per  cent,  of  the  timber  furnished 
the  mill  for  stock  manufacture  to  be  eventually  used  as 
fuel,  or  dragged  out  into  the  yards  to  be  used  as  filling 
for  mudholes,  or  disposed  of  through  other  means  from 
which  the  mill  owner  derives  no «#e venue.  The  total  per- 
centage of  ultimate  waste  in  manufacturing  cooperage 
stock,  even  in  the  best-regulated  plants,  is  enough  to 
make  a  man's  hair  stand  on  end.  This  is  the  point  in 
slack  stock  manufacture  that  will  bear  watching,  provid- 
ing one  wishes  to  study  economy  in  mill  operation. 

TIME    OF    FELLING 

Winter  felling  of  trees  has  long  been  the  general  rule, 
since  conditions  continue  to  make  it  the  best  and  most 
economical  season  for  the  logger.  Moreover,  sap  con- 
tains fewer  nitrogenous  substances  in  winter  than  at 
any  other  season,  and  since  fungi  obtain  much  of  their 
food  from  these  substances,  winter-cut  timber,  on  ac- 
count of  the  low  temperature  of  the  season,  is  least  liable 
to  attack  from  this  source.  Wood  cut  in  the  fall  of  the 
year,  when  the  sap  is  down,  usually  seasons  more  grad- 
ually, and  at  that  time  of  the  year  the  wood  fibres  shrink 


HARVESTING  RAW   MATERIAL 


179 


more  uniformly,  and  thus  checking  is  less  serious. 
Though  in  nearly  all  cases  winter-cut  wood  is  heavier 
than  wood  cut  at  any  other  season,  yet,  after  six  or  eight 
months'  seasoning,  under  ordinary  climatic  conditions,  it 
so  nearly  approaches  the  weight  of  the  lightest,  that  the 


FIG.  45.     A  TYPICAL  HARDWOOD  FOREST,  WITH  UNDERGROWTH  OF  YOUNG 
BEECH  AND  MAPLE  AND  SCATTERING  WITCH  HOBBLE  AND  MOOSEWOOD. 


180 


COOPERAGE 


difference  is  practically  negligible.  From  the  standpoint 
of  seasoning,  checking,  and  susceptibility  to  decay,  spring 
and  winter  are  the  best  seasons  of  the  year  for  cutting. 
Other  considerations,  such  as  custom,  availability  of 
labor,  etc.,  also  make  winter  cutting  preferable.  But 
aside  from  these  preferences,  the  season  of  the  year  or 


FIG.  46.    HAULING  LOGS,  A  FAMILIAR  PICTURE  TO  THE  WOODSMAN. 


the  phase  of  the  moon  has  no  noticeable  influence  on  its 
strength  or  durability;  in  short,  seasoning  does  not  in 
itself  furnish  a  conclusive  argument  for  cutting  in  any 
one  season,  as,  if  the  wood  is  properly  taken  care  of,  by 
being  promptly  worked  up  and  protected  by  proper 
methods  in  piling  or  by  seasoning  and  kiln-drying,  there 


HARVESTING  RAW  MATERIAL 


181 


would  be  no  noticeable  difference  between  summer  and 
winter  felled  wood. 

Usually,  summer-felled  wood,  on  account  of  the  preva- 
lent high  temperatures,  and  at  times  to  unnecessary  ex- 
posure to  the  sun,  the  wood  checks  more  rapidly  if  left 
for  any  length  of  time  to  the  weather  than  winter-felled 
wood ;  and  since  season  checks  favor  the  entrance  of  both 


WAST?:   IN   WOODS   OPERATIONS.    An  unnecessarily  high   stump; 
also  a  sound  log  overlooked  by  the  woodsman. 

moisture  and  fungus,  which  facilitate  destruction,  it  is 
therefore  considered  more  advisable  to  cut  timber  during 
the  winter  season.  Trees  normally  contain  the  greatest 
amount  of  water  during  that  period  when  the  roots  are 
active  and  the  leaves  are  not  yet  out.  This  activity  com- 
monly begins  in  January,  February  or  March,  the  exact 


182 


COOPEEAGE 


time  varying  with  the  kind  of  timber  and  the  local  atmos- 
pheric conditions.  And  it  has  been  found  that  green  wood 
becomes  lighter  or  contains  less  water  in  late  spring  or 
early  summer,  when  transpiration  through  the  foliage 
is  most  rapid. 

The  amount  of  water  at  any  season,  however,  is  doubt- 
'less  much  influenced  by  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the 


FIG.  48.  GOOD  AND  BAD  CUTTING.  The  small  trees  have  been  left  to  seed 
up  the  opening  made  by  the  removal  of  the  larger  ones,  but  the  stumps 
show  unnecessary  waste,  in  that  they  have  been  cut  much  higher  than 
was  necessary. 

soil.  The  conclusions,  then,  taken  from  the  arguments  as 
set  forth,  would  be  that  "winter-cut"  wood  seasons  more 
regularly  than  that  cut  at  any  other  season  of  the  year, 
but  does  not,  for  many  months  at  least,  reach  as  low  a 
weight  as  wood  cut  in  late  spring  or  early  summer  which 


HARVESTING  RAW  MATERIAL 


183 


is  seasoned  equally  as  long;  that  in  timber  of  approx- 
imately the  same  age  and  growth,  that  cut  in  the  winter 
season  will  have  the  greatest  specific  gravity,  while  that 
which  is  cut  in  autumn  will  have  the  least ;  that  from  the 
standpoint  of  seasoning,  spring  and  winter  are  the  best 
times  for  cutting,  and  that  if  timber  is  carefully  cut, 


FIG.  49.     A  LARGE  HEMLOCK. 

checking  during  air  seasoning  is  comparatively  slight; 
but  if  the  timber  is  split  or  shattered  in  felling,  serious 
checking  may  result;  that  if  wood  which  is  cut  in  the 
summer  season  is  protected  or  given  the  proper  care  and 
attention  as  mentioned,  no  noticeable  difference  exists. 
So  that  the  practical  consideration  in  favor  of  winter 
cutting  is  of  determining  importance. 


184 


COOPEEAGE 

WOODS    MANAGEMENT 


Where  cooperage  stock  manufacturers  do  their  own 
logging  or  cut  their  own  raw  material  in  the  forests,  it  is 
highly  imperative  that  the  woods  foreman  should  be  a 
practical  man,  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  business 
and  methods  "at  the  mill,"  and  have  a  knowledge  as  to 


FIG.  50.    A  LARGE  RED  GUM. 


HAEVESTING  RAW  MATERIAL 


185 


the  purpose  for  which  a  log  or  tree  is  best  suited.  He 
should  also  be  well  trained  in  the  matter  of  economy  in 
waste,  as  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  greatest  quantity 
and  percentage  of  waste  can  be  traced  to  this  quarter 
(see  Figs.  47  and  48),  where  a  lack  of  careful  supervision 


FIG.  51.     A  LARGE  COTTONWOOD.    One  of  the  associates  of  red  gum. 


186 


COOPEBAGE 


and  knowledge  often  leads  to  wilful  destruction  of  val- 
uable timber.  And  in  view  of  the  rapid  decrease  in  the 
supply,  it  would  be  well  in  all  forest  operations  to  give 
more  attention  to  this  point.  Logs  or  bolts  are  often  cut 
at  an  inopportune  time,  or  more  rapidly  than  is  necessary, 
and  left  lying  in  the  woods  (see  Fig.  55)  until  they  dis- 
color, check,  decay,  or  become  sour  and  useless  for  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  intended. 


FIG.  52.     SECOND  GROWTH  RED  GUM,  ASH,  COTTONWOOD,  AND  SYCAMORE. 

The  woodsman  should  also  appreciate  the  fact  that 
stave  and  heading  mills  can  sometimes  utilize  a  block 
16  or  18  inches  long,  as  well  as  a  log  16  feet  in  length. 
Still,  thousands  of  such  short  blocks  of  apparently 
good  quality,  or  tops,  the  lower  ends  of  which  would 
make  excellent  stave  or  heading  bolts,  are  abandoned 
and  left  in  the  woods  to  rot  and  decay  (see  Fig.  47), 
whereas  if  these  short  blocks  were  sent  to  the  mill, 


HARVESTING  RAW  MATERIAL 


187 


staves  or  headings  could  possibly  be  made  for  the 
smaller  sized  packages  and  a  saving  created  which 
would  be  astonishing  to  even  the  most  economical  of  mill 
operators.  Considering  the  waning  supply  of  timber 
suitable  for  use  in  the  slack  cooperage  industry,  it  would 


•"V^y&>»- 

FIG.  53.     A  CYPRESS  SLOUGH  IN  THE  DRY  SEASON. 


188  COOPERAGE 

be  well  for  all  operations  in  the  woods  to  be  planned  with 
a  view  to  encouraging  reproduction. .  This  object  can 
best  be  accomplished  by  cutting  conservatively  at  pres- 
ent, by  using  the  utmost  care  to  preserve  and  protect  the 
younger  trees,  and  by  keeping  fires  off  the  land.  Cutting 
without  any  regard  to  a  diameter  limit  or  with  no  inten- 


FIG.  54.    A  TUPELO  GUM  SLOUGH. 


HARVESTING   RAW  MATERIAL  189 

tion  of  leaving  seed  trees  is  the  most  unsatisfactory 
method,  as  is  shown  by  the  present  depleted  condition  of 
our  forests.  Had  these  principles  been  inaugurated  in  all 
woods  operations  twenty  years  ago,  we  would  not  now  be 
seeking  substitutes  for  the  woods  which  are  rapidly  being 
exhausted. 

Owing   to   the   number    of   different    species   in    the 
forests,  the  diameter  to  which  trees  are  now  cut  varies 


FIG.  55.     PEELED  RED  GUM  LOGS  SEASONING  IN  THE  WOODS. 

considerably.  It  hardly  pays  to  take  out  logs  less  than 
8  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end,  or  10  inches  breast 
high.  Trees  under  10  inches  breast  high  should  not  be 
taken,  as  the  extra  amount  of  labor  incurred  in  handling 
these  small  logs,  together  with  the  difficulty  experienced 
in  producing  good  stock,  does  not  warrant  such  wilful  de- 
struction or  demoralization  of  our  source  of  supply.  Some 
mills  have  been  known  to  cut  stock  from  trees  6  to  7  inches 
in  diameter.  Staves  produced  from  such  timber  are  not 


190  COOPERAGE 

fit  for  first-class  packages,  as  being  necessarily  "  bastard 
cut,"  they  warp  and  shrink  unevenly  in  drying,  and  will 
not  stand  the  strain  subjected  to  them  in  the  modern 
methods  of  machine  manufacture.  Of  course,  they  would 
answer  for  fruit  or  vegetable  packages,  when  manufac- 
tured by  hand,  but  should  be  sold  as  such,  and  not  as  an 
A  No.  1  stave  for  other  purposes.  In  cutting,  all  possible 
care  should  be  exercised  to  save  the  younger  trees,  as 
they  are  the  future  forest  supply,  and  waste  should  be 
avoided  by  cutting  as  low  on  the  stump  and  utilizing  as 
much  of  the  tree  as  practicable.  (See  Figs.  47  and  48.) 
The  forest  is  seldom  clean  enough  to  allow  of  much  re- 
production, and  anything  that  will  tend  to  reduce  the 
waste  will  therefore  be  of  great  benefit,  both  to  the  oper- 
ator and  to  the  young  seedlings  that  are  springing  up  in 
the  bed  of  the  forest.  Small  trees  should  not  be  cut, 
present  methods  notwithstanding  to  the  contrary,  and  in 
logging  every  effort  should  be  put  forth  to  save  them. 
Whatever  young  growth  is  left  on  the  ground  after  cut- 
ting will  form  the  basis  of  the  next  crop  of  timber,  and 
the  seedlings  which  start  at  this  time  form  the  nucleus 
of  future  crops.  The  object  in  view  should  be  to  obtain 
the  greatest  yield  from  the  land  in  two  cuttings,  perhaps 
twenty  years  apart. 

Working  plans  of  such  nature  are  particularly  suc- 
cessful on  hardwood  bottom  land,  for  the  species  there 
are  nearly  all  of  rapid  growth,  and  protection  from 
fire  is  fairly  simple.  Careful  management  in  all  cases 
is  strongly  advisable,  as  much  of  the  land  when  cut 
over  promises  to  produce  worthless  woods  unless  care 
is  taken  to  leave  seed  trees  and  to  favor  the  young 
growth  of  desirable  species.  With  proper  forest  man- 
agement, land  is  capable  of  yielding  permanently  high 
returns. 


HARVESTING  RAW  MATERIAL  191 


THE   DIFFICULTIES   OF   TRANSPORTING   GUM 

In  the  handling  of  red  and  tupelo  gum,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  this  wood  growing  in  the  South  and  along  the 
Atlantic  Coast  is  usually  transported  from  the  forests 
to  the  mills  by  means  of  the  streams.  The  unusual  weight 
of  the  green  timber  of  this  species  is  so  great  that  it 
scarcely  floats.  Probably  one-third  of  the  logs,  those  with 
the  largest  amount  of  sapwood,  sink.  On  the  coast,  where 
the  percentage  of  sapwood  is  larger  than  in  the  Missis- 
sippi States,  very  few,  if  any,  of  the  logs  will  float.  To 
overcome  this  difficulty,  various,  methods  of  driving  out 
the  sap  of  the  logs  before  they  have  been  thrown  into  the 
water  have  been  tried.  For  small  operations,  the  method 
usually  employed  is  to  fell  the  trees  in  the  fall,  peel  them, 
and  allow  them  to  lie  two  or  three  months  in  the  woods 
(Fig.  55)  before  they  are  floated  or  until  the  high  water 
sets  in,  late  in  the  winter,  when  the  logs  are  floated  along 
roads  cut  through  the  forest  to  the  river,  and  thence 
rafted  or  floated  down  to  the  mills.  In  some  cases  gird- 
ling is  resorted  to,  allowing  them  to  die  on  the  stump. 
The  girdling  is  done  in  the  summer  season,  usually  start- 
ing about  the  first  of  July  and  continuing  to  within  ninety 
days  of  high  water.  It  has  been  found  by  experience 
however,  that  though  these  methods  render  the  log  float- 
able, they  cause  the  sapwood  to  decay  by  exposing  it  to 
the  air  and  weather,  and  thus  destroy  much  of  the  market- 
able value  of  that  part  of  the  tree.  In  the  early  history 
of  gum  it  was  thought  by  many  mill  men  that  if  the  tree 
was  girdled  one  year,  allowed  to  die,  and  afterward  cut, 
that  the  amount  of  red  or  heartwood  would  be  increased. 
This  was  based  on  the  theory  that  the  darker  color  of  the 
heartwood  was  caused  by  the  death  of  the  sapwood,  and 
that  the  killing  of  the  tree  would  tend  to  change  the  sap- 
wood  into  heartwood.  This  theory  has  been  exploded 


192  COOPERAGE 

and  abandoned,  and  in  cutting  gum,  little  girdling  is  now 
done  for  this  purpose.  Owing  to  the  large  supply  of  this 
timber  in  the  Southern  forests,  and  its  cheapness  as  com- 
pared to  other  species,  it  will  no  doubt  be  looked  upon 
with  more  favor  as  a  cooperage  wood  in  the  years  to 
come,  and  its  price  will  doubtless  remain  where  it  is  for 
a  few  years  at  least.  After  this,  since  the  supply  of  gum 
will  rapidly  diminish,  it  will  increase  accordingly  in 
value. 

SITE  AND  AKKANGEMENT  OF  THE  MILL 

In  the  selection  of  the  mill  or  factory  site,  good  judg- 
ment and  tact  is  essential,  for  if  the  plant  is  not  properly 
situated,  so  as  to  receive  the  raw  material  and  dispose  of 
the  finished  product  to  the  best  possible  advantage,  the 
manufacturer  will  find  it  very  perplexing,  and  be  at  a 
disadvantage  and  unable  to  compete  with  his  competitors, 
who  are  fortunately  more  suitably  located.  Unless  the 
mill  is  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  different 
stages  of  manufacture  are  carried  out  in  progressive  or- 
der, there  will  be  a  considerable  amount  of  unremuner- 
ative  labor.  The  ideal  mill  or  factory  is  that  in  which 
there  is  no  unnecessary  handling  of  raw  material,  and  in 
which  everything  when  received  at  the  works  is  stored  so 
as  to  be  readily  available  when  needed,  and  thereafter 
so  handled  throughout  the  whole  course  of  manufacture 
that  it  will  not  go  through  any  backward  movement,  but 
forward  from  stage  to  stage,  until  ready  for  the  market. 
A  mill  pond  is  essential  to  all  well-equipped  plants,  where 
economy  is  sought,  although  it  is  not  an  absolute  neces- 
sity, excepting  where  the  supply  of  timber  is  cut  during 
the  winter  for  the  entire  year.  Then  a  good  sized  pond 
is  necessary,  for  it  not  only  preserves  the  timber,  but  it 
is  beneficial  and  economical  in  handling  same  from  stor- 
age to  mill.  Next  in  importance  is  the  question  of  grades, 


HARVESTING  RAW  MATERIAL  193 

elevation,  balance  and  the  law  of  gravitation.  The  first 
operation  of  the  mill  should  be  to  elevate  the  raw  ma- 
terial to  a  point  where  it  would  be  a  continual  down  grade 
until  the  finished  product  reached  the  car  or  loading 
point,  ready  to  be  billed  out,  with  the  least  possible 
amount  of  labor  in  handling.  This  may  seem  to  some 
to  be  trivial,  but  is  of  primary  importance  in  all  mills 
where  economy  is  sought  in  the  manufacture  of  cooperage 
stock,  and  economy  coupled  with  brainy  management  is 
necessary,  especially  in  the  manufacture  of  cooperage 
stock  to-day,  as  the  future  of  the  barrel  as  a  popular 
package  very  largely  depends  upon  the  use  of  modern 
methods  and  the  practice  of  such  economies  in  order  that 
its  cost  may  be  kept  within  the  necessary  limits,  beyond 
which  it  is  not  safe  to  go. 

The  machinery  on  the  market  to-day  for  the  manu- 
facture of  slack  cooperage  stock  is  worthy  of  comment, 
and  the  manufacturers  of  same  have  accomplished  much. 
They  have  given  us  machines  and  appliances  with  which 
we  can,  with  the  proper  care,  produce  first-class  stock 
from  raw  material  in  an  efficient  and  able  manner. 
The  rapidity,  perfection,  and  complete  adaptability 
of  these  machines  for  their  especial  purpose  are  ex- 
ceedingly creditable,  and  these  modern  machines  and 
appliances  should  be  installed  wherever  it  is  possible 
to  use  them,  in  order  to  lessen  the  expense,  make  the  work 
easy,  or  more  rapid  in  its  production. 

THE    UNLOADING    SWITCH 

Whether  a  log  pond  is  installed  or  not,  the  road  bed 
of  the  unloading  switch  which  brings  the  logs  or  raw 
material  to  the  mill  should  be  so  constructed  with  the 
proper  amount  of  slant  toward  the  pond  or  receiving 
platform  that  when  the  trip  chains  are  loosened  with  a 
cant  hook,  which  is  easily  accomplished,  the  logs  will  roll 


194  COOPEEAGE 

of  their  own  accord  into  the  pond.  This  is  another  point 
in  economy  that  should  not  be  forgotten,  as  one  man  can 
easily  and  without  much  effort  discharge  a  trainload  of 
logs  in  a  very  short  space  of  time. 

THE  SLACK  STOCK  MILL 

Mills  for  the  manufacture  of  slack  stock  are  of  several 
different  types.  Some  manufacture  staves  only,  others 
heading  only,  some  manufacture  staves  and  heading 
while  still  others  manufacture  staves  in  connection  with 
a  hoop  mill,  generally  making  elm  staves  especially.  And, 
again,  some  mills  manufacture  staves,  heading  and  hoops, 
which  is  an  ideal  arrangement,  as  the  logs  can  then  be 
worked  up  into  that  class  of  stock  for  which  they  are 
best  adapted.  Ordinarily,  staves  when  manufactured  at 
a  hoop  mill  do  not  run  as  large  a  per  cent.  No.  1  from 
the  fact  that  the  better  grade  of  logs  must  necessarily  be 
cut  into  hoops.  If  the  staves  are  carefully  graded, 
usually  from  40  to  60  per  cent,  is  considered  favorable. 
Heading  would  be  more  suitable  for  manufacture  in  con- 
nection with  a  hoop  mill  than  staves,  from  the  fact  that 
the  bolts  are  shorter,  and  a  poorer  grade  of  timber  can 
be  utilized  more  advantageously  than  in  staves  or  hoops. 


SECTION   VIII 


SLACK  STAVE 
MANUFACTURE 


SLACK   STAVE    MANUFACTURE 


GENEKAL  KEMAKKS 

IN  the  manufacture  of  slack  barrel  staves  there  are 
several  distinct  branches  of  the  business,  in  any  one  of 
which  success  or  failure  means  profits  or  loss  to  the 
industry.  These  divisions  are,  first,  timber;  second,  fac- 
tory work;  third,  piling*  or  air  seasoning,  and  fourth, 
jointing  and  packing.  As  in  the  manufacture  of  any  kind 
of  cooperage  stock  good  timber  is  essential  to  good 
staves,  yet  one  can  be  careful,  using  good  tact  and, 
judgment  in  purchasing  good  timber,  and  getting  it  to 
the  mill  in  proper  shape,  and  still  manufacture  very  in- 
ferior stock  if  the  processes  above  mentioned  are  care- 
lessly performed  or  neglected.  It  has  been  proven  beyond 
a  doubt  that  the  extremely  small  and  crooked  timber  is 
not  profitable  to  work,  and  should  be  left  standing  in 
the  forest  until  it  has  grown  to  the  proper  size,  which 
should  be  at  least  ten  inches  breast  high. 

The  increased  cost  of  labor  in  handling,  transporting, 
etc.,  is  so  great  that  it  is  difficult  to  secure  more  than  the 
bare  cost  out  of  such  timber.  Dead  timber  and  logs  that 
have  been  left  in  the  woods  or  on  the  yard  until  they  have 
become  decayed  or  are  partially  so  cause  no  little  amount 
of  difficulty  and  loss  at  the  mill,  and  are  the  direct  cause 
of  a  great  many  complaints  of  defective  stock,  and  more 
especially  so  in  the  No.  2  grade. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  as  to  how  brash 
or  how  dead  it  is  permissible  for  a  stave  to  be  and  not  be 
considered  a  dead  cull.  As  to  the  No.  1  grade,  these  brash 
or  dead  timber  staves  should  never  be  put  into  that  class, 


198  COOPERAGE 

and  a  great  many  should  not  even  be  put  into  the  No.  2 
grade ;  in  fact,  it  would  be  far  better  and  more  economical 
for  all  parties  concerned  if  this  class  of  timber  was  left  in 
the  woods.  A  stave  that  will  break  or  bend  with  as  little 
pressure  as  is  required  to  make  an  ordinary  produce 
barrel  should  certainly  be  throwu  out.  And  it  will  be 
found  preferable  to  leave  such  timber  in  the  woods  rather 
than  culling  them  at  the  jointers  after  more  or -less  labor 
and  expense  has  been  incurred  in  the  handling,  etc. 

THE  WASTE  PKOBLEM 

The  total  percentage  of  ultimate  waste  in  manufac- 
turing cooperage  stock,  even  in  the  best-regulated  mills, 
is  astonishing,  and  few  operators  are  aware  of  their 
enormous  loss  from  this  least  respected  point  in  economy. 
So  far,  forest  utilization  has  been  of  the  most  wasteful 
kind,  and  only  a  relatively  small  percentage  of  the  actual 
wood  content  of  our  trees  finally  reaches  the  consumer  in 
the  form  of  staves,  hoops,  or  heading.  Studies  made  by 
the  Forest  Service  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  indi- 
cate that  in  the  manufacture  of  staves  and  hoops  only 
50  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  contents  of  the  log  which  goes 
into  the  mill  finally  emerge  in  the  manufactured  form, 
and  that  with  heading  perhaps  no  more  than  25  to  30 
per  cent,  of  the  actual  volume  of  the  log  finally  goes  into 
the  finished  package. 

Much  of  this  lack  of  utilization  cannot  very  well  be 
prevented,  yet  there  are  possibilities  of  much  greater 
economy  than  is  generally  practised.  For  instance, 
upon  careless  inspection,  logs  are  often  assumed  to 
be  suitable  for  stave  bolts,  and  are  cut  into  lengths 
which  are  multiples  of  the  length  required,  and  are 
subsequently  found  to  be  fit  only  for  heading,  which 
requires  much  shorter  lengths.  This  causes  an  unneces- 
sary amount  of  waste,  which  could  have  been  prevented 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  199 

by  a  more  careful  determination  at  first  of  the  purpose 
for  which  the  log  was  best  fitted  to  serve.  And,  again,  logs 
are  often  bolted  up  into  32-inch  lengths  for  the  purpose 
of  cutting  into  the  regular  30-inch  staves,  and  are  later 
cut  up  into  28-inch  staves  or  shorter,  which  means  a 
waste  in  the  first  instance  of  two  to  three  inches  on  every 
bolt,  which  could  be  averted  by  bolting  out  for  each  par- 
ticular length  or  size.  This  argument  also  stands  for 
the  different  heading  sizes. 

Waste  also  occurs  sometimes  because  the  logs  lie 
in  the  woods  or  on  the  yard  until  they  are  so  badly 
checked  that  it  is  necessary  to  cut  off  considerable 
of  each  end  before  the  sound  timber  is  reached,  and 
they  are  sometimes  checked  so  badly  all  through  that 
over  50  per  cent,  of  the  log  is  worthless.  Waste  is 
increased,  also,  if  the  bolts  are  split  instead  of  sawn, 
since  in  this  case  the  first  and  last  two  or  more  staves 
cut  from  each  bolt  must  be  discarded,  because  the  bolt 
is  uneven;  and,  again,  by  splitting,  the  rift  naturally 
follows  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  in  cases  of  cross- 
grained  timber,  the  bolts  would  have  a  wavy  surface 
(Fig.  12)  and  be  twisted  or  wider  at  one  end  than  at  the 
other,  causing  considerable  waste.  Hence,  a  given  volume 
of  timber  will  produce  more  staves  when  the  bolts  are 
sawn  than  if  they  were  split  or  riven. 

Considerable  waste  can  often  be  traced  to  faulty 
methods  of  manufacture  and  in  the  handling  of  stock. 
In  order  to  utilize  all  the  timber  and  give  each  log  its 
most  economical  place,  the  different  departments  of  the 
mill  must  work  in  harmony  and  for  a  common  cause.  A 
log  that  will  not  make  a  good  hoop  will  very  often  do  for 
staves,  and  one  too  poor  or  too  small  for  staves  will  often 
turn  out  excellent  heading.  Where  a  mill  manufactures 
only  one  class  of  stock,  it  would  be  advisable  for  them  to 
have  some  side  line,  such  as  head  liners,  keg  stock,  tie 


200  *  COOPERAGE 

plugs,  or  furniture  stock,  whereby  they  could  utilize  their 
waste  to  advantage. 

The  waste  from  careless  stave  jointing  is  another 
item  of  great  importance.  If  the  species  of  wood  is 
hard  to  cut  and  contains  many  knots,  the  jointer  will 
very  often  needlessly  cull  hundreds  of  staves,  the  de- 
fects of  which  could  have  been  cut  around  and  the 
timber  saved.  Improper  methods  in  cutting  and  bolting 
for  staves  is  another  great  cause  of  waste.  In  some  mills 
the  log,  instead  of  first  being  cut  into  blocks  of  the  proper 
length  and  then  quartered  into  stave  bolts,  is  first  sawn 
into  cants  or  quartered  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
log  and  then  divided  or  sawn  into  the  requisite  lengths 
for  stave  bolts.  This  method,  as  generally  practised, 
does  not  shape  the  bolt  to  the  proper  slanting  form. 
Moreover,  the  grain  of  the  log  generally  does  not  run 
parallel  to  its  axis  all  the  way  through,  and  for  this 
reason  the  bolts  prepared  in  this  manner  will  be  more 
or  less  cross-grained  and  hence  produce  a  poor  grade  of 
staves.  Then,  again,  much  waste  is  often  due  to  careless 
management.  The  cooperage  man  must  have  green  tim- 
ber, and  yet  hundreds  of  logs  or  blocks  will  often  be 
allowed  to  lie  on  the  yard  or  in  the  woods  until  they 
become  too  dry  to  be  worked  economically  or  are  so  badly 
checked  that  they  are  hardly  fit  for  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  intended.  Heading  blanks  will  very  often  be 
cut  21  inches  long,  when  only  17%-inch  and  even  15%-inch 
heading  will  be  circled  out  of  them,  and  Ihe  heading 
matcher  in  his  haste  or  carelessness  will  also  often  cause 
another  waste  of  two  inches  or  more  by  the  wrong  choice 
of  pieces.  The  question  of  seasoning  on  the  yard  is 
another  important  factor  in  the  waste  problem.  Stock 
is  often  piled  in  the  open,  the  ricks  or  piles  left  uncov- 
ered, not  properly  elevated  from  the  ground,  or  not 
sufficient  air  space  left  between  the  piles.  Under  these 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  201 

conditions  the  top  layers  will  twist  and  warp  and  the 
bottom  layers  will  rot,  while  very  often  the  entire  pile 
will  become  covered  with  a  thick,  greenish  mould. 

An  up-to-date  slack  cooperage  plant  should  utilize 
every  part  of  the  bolt  or  log — bark,  sawdust,  and  wood 
of  every  conceivable  shape — and  this  can  be  accomplished 
with  the  proper  energy  and  by  an  expenditure  in  the  first 
cost  which  will  soon  be  repaid  to  the  mill  owner.  As  to 
what  can  be  made  to  utilize  the  waste,  it  depends  some- 
what on  location  and  surrounding  conditions.  Head- 
liners  are  a  stock  product  that  can  be  made  to  utilize  some 
of  the  waste  that  accumulates  in  the  form  of  cull  hoops. 
However,  in  converting  timber  into  hoops,  especially 
direct  from  the  log,  there  is  quite  a  lot  of  stock  that  is 
not  cut  into  hoops  on  account  of  knots  and  other  defects, 
and  this  may  be  utilized  for  different  products. 

One  line  of  work,  and  a  very  important  one  in  some 
localities,  is  to  make  small-dimension  stock  for  chair  fac- 
tories, including  rungs,  posts,  seat  frames,  backs,  and,  in 
fact,  all  parts  of  various  kinds  of  chairs  and  other  furni- 
ture. It  is  an  interesting  line  of  work,  too,  when  followed 
up  right,  the  only  drawback  being  the  difficulty  in  secur- 
ing fair  prices  for  the  material. 

In  some  localities  there  is  a  chance  to  make  crate  stock 
of  various  kinds  to  advantage  out  of  scrap  material,  and 
this  wood,  on  account  of  its  toughness,  makes  excellent 
crate  stock.  Trunk  strips  offer  another  opening,  and 
really  furnish  an  excellent  line  of  work  when  you  once 
get  into  it,  because  it  is  a  little  better  quality  of  stock 
than  ordinary  crate  strips,  and  in  consequence  brings 
better  prices.  Elm  is  the  favored  wood  for  trunk  strips, 
and  as  this  work  includes  numerous  short  lengths,  they 
can  frequently  be  made  to  advantage  along  with  hoops, 
and  made  to  assist  materially  in  utilizing  stock  that  would 
otherwise  go  to  waste. 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE 


203 


There  are  probably  a  number  of  other  items  that  might 
be  included  here,  such  as  tie  plugs,  wooden  spools,  etc., 
but  with  these  to  start  on  you  should  be  able  to  keep 
building  on  to  this  list  right  along.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  the  variety  of  conditions  and  how  they  are  over- 
come in  various  sections  in  the  manufacture  of  slack 
stock. 


FIG.  57.     STEAM  KICKEU  OR  LOG  UNLOADEB. 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  205 


FIG.  59.     DROP-FEED  CIRCULAR  CUT-OFF  SAW. 


206  COOPERAGE 

The  conditions  vary  as  to  climatic  influences,  such,  as 
in  the  North  we  must  remember  that  the  low  temperature 
exerts  influences  that  in  the  South  are  not  even  con- 


FIG.  60.    DROP-FEED  CIRCULAR  CUT-OFF  SAW  IN  ACTION.   Right-hand  view. 

jectured.  The  warm  and  unpleasant  summer  months 
control  the  character  of  labor  very  seriously  in  the  South. 
The  Northerner  never  dreams  of  this.  The  Easterner 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  207 

faces  the  problem  of  the  very  excessive  prices  of  the  raw 
material,  that  would  paralyze  the  Middle- Westerner  or 
Southerner.  He  therefore  overcomes  this  by  utilizing 


FIG.  61.    DROP-FEED  CIRCULAR  CUT-OFF  SAW  IN  ACTION.    Left-hand  view. 

every  particle  of  the  log  in  ways  the  Southerner  would 
not  think  of.  In  the  West  or  extreme  West  the  manu- 
facturing of  slack  barrel  staves,  heads,  and  hoops  has 
not  received  the  attention  that  it  has  in  other  sections 


208 


COOPERAGE 


the  tree  or  its  product  being  manufactured  into  lumber 
for  building  purposes. 


FIG.  62.     OVER-HEAD  STYLE  STEAM  DOG. 
THE   BOLTING  BOOM 

The  bolting  room  is  where  the  timber  is  sawn  into  the 
proper  lengths  for  cutting  into  staves,  heading  or  hoops. 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  209 

The  logs  should  be  brought  into  this  department  from 
the  log  pond  on  an  inclined  log  trough  by  means  of  an 
endless  chain  log  jacker  or  log  haul-up  (see  Fig.  56),  and 
landed  on  the  sorting  deck,  where  they  can  be  properly 
inspected  and  put  to  the  uses  for  which  they  are  best 
adapted,  the  better  grade  of  logs,  ones  with  the  straight- 
est  grain  and  the  least  defects,  such  as  knots,  checks,  etc., 
going  into  hoops  or  staves  and  the  more  inferior  ones  put 
aside  for  heading.  Some  mills  may  find  use  for  a  steam 
kicker  or  log  unloader  (see  Fig.  57)  for  throwing  logs 
out  of  the  log  trough  in  the  mill.  This  machine  can  be 
used  either  singly,  as  shown  in  cut  of  complete  deck,  or 
double,  as  shown  in  this  cut.  The  double  machine  con- 
sists of  two  rock  shafts,  to  which  are  attached  as  many 
heavy  cast  arms  as  desired  for  length  of  log  they  are 
to  handle.  To  these  are  attached  the  shover  arms,  which 
should  be  of  forged  steel  hinged  at  the  bottom  end  to 
the  cast  arms  and  working  through  cast  guides  located  in 
the  deck  at  sides  of  trough.  These  shafts  and  arms  are 
in  turn  operated  by  means  of  two  steam  cylinders 
attached  to  the  shafts  by  means  of  connecting  rods  and 
a  heavy  cast  arm  on  rock  shaft.  The  machine  can  be 
operated  by  means  of  a  lever  or  by  two  foot  treads.  In 
most  cases  the  foot  treads  are  used,  and  are  generally 
placed  on  one  side  of  the  log  way. 

THE    CUT-OFF    SAW 

The  logs  should  then  be  taken  to  the  cut-off  saw,  to 
be  sawn  into  the  proper  lengths  for  staves  or  heading. 
For  this  particular  work  some  use  what  is  termed  a 
"drag  saw"  (see  Fig.  58),  others  use  a  "drop  circular 
saw"  (see  Figs.  59,  60  and  61),  which  show  same  in  ac- 
tion), and  in  some  mills  both  types  are  used,  as  in  some 
instances  where  an  extra  large  log  is  brought  into  the 


210 


COOPERAGE 


mill,  the  drag  saw  is  brought  into  use,  but  for  small- 
diameter  logs,  up  to  30  inches  in  diameter,  the  drop-feed 
circular  cut-off  saw  is  the  more  efficient.  For  use  in 
conjunction  with  the  drag  or  drop-feed  circular  cut-off 
saw,  for  holding  the  logs  firm  and  in  position  while  being 
sawn,  are  what  are  termed  " steam  dogs."  (See  Figs.  62 
and  63.)  The  former  type  is  what  is  termed  the  "over- 
head style  of  steam  dog, ' '  and  where  timber  does  not  run 
very  large,  this  dog  is  very  effective. 

The  mechanism  will  be  seen  by  a  glance  at  the  cut.    It 
is  a  steam  cylinder,  usually  8  inches  in  diameter  by  48 


FIG.  63.     FLOOR-LEVEL  STYLE  STEAM  DOG. 

inches  long,  mounted  directly  over  the  rolls  or  log 
trough  where  stock  is  to  be  dogged.  The  end  of  the 
piston  is  provided  with  corrugated  head.  When  stock 
is  in  position  to  be  sawn,  steam  is  admitted  at  top  end 
of  cylinder ;  the  corrugated  head  '  strikes  the  log,  the 
steam  pressure  is  kept  on  until  cut  is  made,  when  steam 
is  admitted  into  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder  and  the 
piston  is  raised,  permitting  the  log  to  be  advanced  for 
the  next  cut.  Fig.  63  is  what  is  termed  the  "floor-level 
type  of  steam  dog, ' '  and  will  give  a  very  fair  idea  of  the 
most  simple,  compact  and  powerful  steam  dog  ever  de- 
signed for  holding  logs  firmly  in  position  while  being 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTUEE  211 

sawn.  It  will  dog  instantly  a  6-inch  or  a  5-foot  log.  It 
consists  principally  of  two  heavy  jaws  working  in  planed 
ways  on  top  side  of  cylinder,  and  attached  direct  to  the 
piston  rods  which  extend  from  each  end  of  cylinder. 

These  pistons  and  rods  are  entirely  separate,  but  both 
are  under  absolute  control,  by  means  of  the  one  valve 
which  is  operated  either  by  lever  or  foot  tread.  One 
great  point  in  favor  of  this  type  of  machine  is  the  small 
amount  of  space  it  occupies ;  the  steam  cylinder  is  usually 
8  inches  in  diameter  by  48  inches  long.  It  can  be  read- 
ily put  in  a  ground-floor  mill  and  can  be  located  in  log 
trough,  as  shown  in  cut,  with  log  chain  passing  through 
its  centre,  or  can  be  placed  at  end  or  between  geared 
rolls.  When  fast  cutting  of  blocks  is  desired  it  is  almost 
indispensable. 

THE  DEAG  SAW 

The  drag  saw  (see  Fig.  58)  is  what  is  termed  a  direct- 
acting  steam  drag  saw,  and  is  very  simple,  compact, 
and  effective.  This  machine  occupies  very  little  space, 
and  is  virtually  a  self-contained  steam  engine  on  a  small 
scale  with  a  saw  blade  fastened  to  the  piston  rod.  Its 
parts  consist  mainly  of  a  base,  a  cylinder,  the  steam  valve 
and  connections,  a  cross-head  which  is  attached  directly 
to  the  piston,  and  to  which  saw  blade  is  secured ;  a  saw 
guide  and  a  device  for  raising  and  lowering  saw  and  feed- 
ing it  while  it  is  in  the  cut,  which  consists  mainly  of 
ropes,  pulleys,  and  a  counterweight. 

On  the  capacity  of  this  saw  depends  the  output  of 
the  entire  mill,  and  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
it  should  be  given  the  best  possible  attention  in  order  to 
insure  its  usefulness.  It  should  be  8  feet  long,  14  inches 
wide,  9  gauge  thick  and  have  80  teeth,  with  a  speed  of 
150  strokes  per  minute.  The  teeth  should  be  1%  inches 
long  by  %  inch  wide  and  have  a  lance  point,  with  a  slight 


212  COOPERAGE 

hook  or  slant  toward  the  rear  end  of  the  saw.  The  tooth 
or  cutting  edge  of  saw  should  in  all  cases  be  perfectly 
straight.  If  it  is  allowed  to  become  low  or  hollow  in 
the  centre,  the  saw  blade  will  jump,  which  interferes 
with  its  cutting  rapidly,  and  is  one  of  the  common  causes 
of  difficulty  with  this  machine.  A  drag  saw  should  be 
hammered  as  stiff  as  it  is  possible  to  make  it,  in  order 
to  insure  the  saw  blade  against  buckling  on  the  forward 
stroke  and  flopping  from  side  to  side  on  its  return  stroke ; 
the  teeth  should  be  jointed  level  to  insure  a  straight  cut 
and  have  about  %-inch  set  for  a  9-gauge  saw,  other  gauges 
in  like  proportion. 

THE   DKOP-FEED    CIBCULAK   CUT-OFF    SAW 

The^  drop-feed  circular  cut-off  saw  (see  Figs.  59,  60, 
and  61),  in  conjunction  with  the  drag  saw  as  shown  in 
Fig.  58,  being  the  most  important  saws  in  the  mill,  should 
be  always  kept  in  first-class  condition,  in  order  to  insure 
a  maximum  output  from  the  mill.  These  drop  saws  are 
journaled  to  a  21%6-inch  saw  arbor.  The  frame  and  saw 
are  counterbalanced,  so  that  when  steam  is  turned  off 
the  cylinder  the  saw  will  always  be  up  out  of  the  way. 
The  feed  is  furnished  by  a  6-inch  steam  cylinder  usually 
56  inches  long,  and  so  arranged  as  to  be  under  perfect 
control  of  the  operator  at  all  times,  who  can  vary  it  ac- 
cording to  the  timber  to  be  cut,  thus  getting  all  possible 
capacity  out  of  saw.  These  saws  are  usually  driven  di- 
rect from  line  or  main  shaft,  the  two  pulleys  at  the  top 
of  frame  acting  as  idlers  and  tighteners ;  these  machines 
when  properly  taken  care  of  will  cut  through  a  20-inch 
Ipg  in  ten  seconds,  and  for  this  purpose  they  cannot  be 
surpassed.  Capacity  depends  entirely  upon  the  rapidity 
with  which  logs  can  be  brought  up  to  the  saw  and  the 
bolts  taken  away.  It  is  advisable  in  conjunction  with 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE 


213 


this  saw  to  use  an  endless-chain  conveyor  for  bringing 
logs  to  the  saw.     Saws  for  this  machine  should  be  66 


j  ,.,;„.,. ;jm 


ouzz; 


FIG.  64.     PLAN  OF  HORIZONTAL  BOLTING  SAW. 


inches  in  diameter,  inserted  teeth,  7  gauge  at  rim,  6  gauge 
at  mandrel  hole,  with  96  teeth,  and  should  be  maintained 


214  COOPEEAGE 

at  a  speed  of  600  revolutions  per  minute.  When  sharp- 
ening, the  same  cutting  angles  shoulcl  be  preserved,  and 
the  gullets  kept  round.  These  inserted-tooth  saws  are 
sharpened  and  dressed  the  same  as  a  solid-tooth  saw, 
and  the  general  directions  in  this  work,  under  the  head 
of  "Saws,"  for  the  dressing  of  solid-tooth  saws  will 
apply.  When  changing  teeth,  first  drive  them  into  posi- 
tion by  placing  a  swage  on  the  cutting  edge  and  striking 
a  blow  with  a  light  hammer.  Care  should  be  exercised 
not  to  expand  the  rim  of  the  saw  by  rivetting  too  tightly, 
for  if  this  operation  is  not  properly  done  the  tension  of 
the  saw  will  be  destroyed.  It  is  only  necessary  to  rivet 
enough  to  secure  the  tooth  firmly.  The  surplus  metal  of 
the  rivet  may  then  be  chipped  off  with  a"  cold  chisel  in  or- 
der that  it  may  not  interfere  with  the  running  of  the  saw. 

THE   BOLTING   SAW 

The  blocks  as  they  come  from  the  drop  or  drag  saw 
are  then  passed  to  the  bolting  saws,  as  shown  in  Fig.  64. 
These  saws  should  be  as  large  as  the  frame  will  allow, 
as  a  large-sized  saw  will  enable  the  operator  to  split 
large-sized  blocks  through  the  centre  without  the  neces- 
sity of  chopping  or  splitting  the  bolt,  which  saves  a  great 
deal  of  timber  and  unnecessary  labor.  Experience  has 
proven  that  a  60-inch  saw  gives  the  best  results.  This  saw 
should  be  8  gauge  straight,  50  teeth,  and  running  800 
revolutions  per  minute.  The  teeth  should  have  full 
%-inch  set  or  swage,  and  pitch  line  should  intersect  a 
line  at  half  the  distance  between  centre  and  rim  of  saw; 
this  gives  a  good  hook  to  the  teeth.  The  back  of  the  teeth 
should  be  kept  low  to  avoid  friction,  about  one-fourth  inch 
down,  a  half  inch  from  the  point  of  tooth,  measuring  from 
a  straight  line  from  point  of  one  tooth  to  the  point  of 
the  next  one.  The  teeth  should  have  ample  throat  to 
chamber  the  dust,  but  should  not  exceed  1%  inches  long. 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  215 

A  safe  rule  is  to  make  the  length  of  the  teeth  half  the 
distance  between  them,  unless  the  teeth  are  more  than 
three  inches  apart,  when  1%  inches  should  be  the  length. 
If  the  teeth  are  too  long,  they  will  not  permit  the  dust 
to  pack  in  the  throat  or  dust  chamber,  so  that  it  can  be 
carried  through  the  cut,  but  will  allow  it  to  pour  out  at 
the  sides  and  heat  the  rim  of  the  saw.  A  straight-gauge 
saw  is  preferable  for  this  reason:  it  allows  the  saw  to 
split  the  log  more  easily,  and  without  carrying  unneces- 
sary set  or  swage,  which  is  not  only  a  waste  of  timber, 
but  requires  more  power  to  drive  the  saw.  Do  not  put 
as  high  tension  in  saw  as  would  be  necessary  if  sent  to 
a  mill,  expecting  it  to  be  used  six  months  without  ham- 
mering, but  put  the  tension  in  saw  for  speed  of  800  revo- 
lutions, and  keep  it  there  at  all  times,  examining  it  every 
time  it  comes  off  the  mandrel.  Keep  the  eye  or  mandrel 
hole  stiff,  the  rim  true  and  smooth,  the  saw  as  near  per- 
fectly round  as  it  is  possible  to  get  it,  as  the  capacity 
of  the  saw  depends  very  much  on  each  tooth  doing  ex- 
actly the  same  amount  of  work.  There  should  be  dupli- 
cate saws,  and  they  should  be  changed  every  five  hours. 
With  the  saw,  saw  carriage  and  feed  rig  in  proper  con- 
dition, 40  cords  of  stave  timber  should  be  flitched  from 
the  round  block  every  five  hours;  then  change  the  saw 
and  go  at  it  again. 

STAVE   AND   HEADING    BOLTS 

The  preparation  of  stave  and  heading  bolts,  prior  to 
their  being  cut  or  sawn  into  staves  and  heading  pieces, 
is  of  much  more  importance  than  the  average  man  at  the 
mill  generally  allows.  In  the  first  instance  it  matters 
not  how  much  attention  is  placed  upon  the  operation  of 
jointing  or  piling  if  the  staves  are  not  cut  properly  from 
the  bolt,  or  the  bolt  is  not  properly  prepared  so  as  to 
allow  of  proper  cutting.  The  staves  will  be,  more  or  less, 


216 


COOPERAGE 


of  inferior  quality.  The  extra  trimming  in  consequence 
of  the  bolts  having  been  improperly  prepared  is  ex- 
pensive, because  it  consumes  time  that  might  otherwise 
have  been  expended  in  cutting  good  staves  if  the  bolts 
had  been  right,  and  the  trimming  also  cuts  away  a 


FIG.  65.    A  LOG  BEFORE  BEING  SAWN  INTO  BOLTS. 

large  amount  of  valuable  timber,  which  is  unnecessarily 
wasted,  or  timber  that  would  have  been  valuable  if  it  had 
been  handled  right  by  the  bolt  being  properly  prepared. 
Fig.  65  shows  the  log  as  it  comes  from  the  tree  or  forest 
and  prior  to  being  cut  into  stave  or  heading  bolts  by  the 
drag  or  drop  saw.  Fig.  66  shows  the  timber  cut  into  the 
proper  lengths  for  bolting.  It  has  been  proven  that  in 


FIG.  66.    A  BOLT  BEFORE 
BEING  QUARTERED. 


FIG.  67.    BOLT  SHOWING  METHOD 
OF  QUARTERING. 


southern  climates,  where  germs  are  active,  or  where  stave 
and  heading  bolts  are  stored  in  enormous  piles,  causing 
them  to  heat  and  sweat,  thus  breeding  germ  life,  it  is 
always  advisable  to  remove  the  bark  after  felling.  In  a 
cold  climate  this  would  be  unnecessary.  Fig.  67  shows  the 
proper  manner  of  sawing  or  splitting  timber  of  large 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE 


217 


diameter  into  stave  bolts,  and  is  termed  by  the  trade  as 
quartering,  so  as  to  allow  of  keeping  with  the  grain 
when  cutting  into  staves.  These  flitches  should  be  sawn 
so  that  the  staves  when  cut  will  average  about  four  inches. 
This  is  one  important  point  the  operator  at  the  bolter 
should  always  bear  in  mind,  as  otherwise  the  staves  will 
run  either  too  wide  or  too  narrow.  The  usual  run  of 
flitches  should  be  from  3  to  6  inches,  with  the  majority  of 
them  nearer  4%  inches,  so  that  they  will  finish  when 


FIG.  68.    PROPERLY  QUARTERED 
STAVE  BOLT  OR.  FLITCH. 


FIG.  69.    STAVE  BOLT  OR  FLITCH 

READY  FOR  THE  STAVE  CUTTER 

OR  CYLINDER  STAVE  SAW. 


jointed  to  4  inches,-  the  proper  average  for  slack  barrel 
staves.  In  quartering  bolts,  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that 
splitting  them  into  flitches  with  a  maul  and  wedge,  in- 
stead of  performing  this  work  with  a  power  bolter,  is 
extremely  wasteful,  since  in  this  case  the  rift  naturally 
follows  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  in  cases  of  cross- 
grained  timber  the  bolts  would  have  a  wavy  surface,  be 
twisted  and  therefore  wider  at  one  end  than  at  the  other, 
necessitating  'several  cuts  before 
a  full  or  complete  stave  could  be 
produced.  Hence,  a  given  vol- 
ume of  timber  will  produce  more 
staves  when  the  bolts  or  flitches 
are  sawn  than  if  they  were  split 
or  riven.  Fig.  68  shows  stave  bolt  properly  quartered 
and  ready  for  the  steam  boxes,  prior  to  being  cut  into 
staves.  Fig.  69  shows  stave  bolt  cut  to  uniform  length 
on  bolt  equalizer  and  bark  peeled  off,  ready  for  the  stave 


o     STAVE  BOLT  Snow- 

ING  METHOD  OF  CUTTING 

on  SAWING  INTO  STAVES, 


218 


COOPERAGE 


cutter  after  having  been  properly  steamed.  Fig.  71  shows 
heading  bolt  properly  prepared  from  tree  or  log.    Fig.  72 


FIG.  71.    HEADING  BOLT 
PROPERLY  PREPARED. 


FIG.  72.     HEADING  BOLT 

SHOWING  METHOD 

OF  SAWING. 


shows  proper  method  of  sawing  pieces  of  heading  from 
heading  bolt. 

STEAM  BOXES  FOE  STAVE  BOLTS 

The  operation  of  steaming  the  timber  at  the  stave  mill, 
prior  to  being  cut  into  staves,  is  an  important  link  in 
slack  stave  manufacture,  and  one  that  should  be  given 
more  attention  than  the  average  mill  man  has  applied 
to  it.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  one  of  the  greatest 
faults  of  the  average  stave  mill  is  either  lack  of  steam 
capacity,  or  poorly  constructed  and  inefficient  steam 
boxes,  or  both.  In  general,  well-steamed  wood  shears 
about  one-third  more  easily  than  merely  wet  wood,  and 
makes  a  brighter  and  much  smoother  stave.  Timber  that 
is  not  properly  steamed  or  not  steamed  enough  will  pro- 
duce a  stave  that  is  rough,  washboardy,  of  uneven  thick- 
ness, and  with  the  fibres  of  the  wood  badly  shattered, 
by  the  knife  forcing  its  way  through  the  bolt,  and  is 
liable  to  appear  mouldy  and  stained  when  taken  from 
the  pile;  and,  again,  if  the  timber  is  steamed  too  much, 
the  stock  will  be  woolly  and  rough,  giving  the  appearance 
of  dead  timber;  this  is  especially  so  in  the  case  of  elm, 
cottonwood,  soft  or  silver  maple.  It  is  being  demon- 
strated now  and  then  that  some  of  the  stave  bolts  are 
suffering  from  over-steaming.  And  when  one  gets  the 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  219 

whole  thing  properly  analyzed  it  will  likely  be  found 
that  the  damage  in  over- steaming  is  more  generally  that 
of  too  intense  steaming,  that  is,  the  use  of  too  much 
heat  or  too  high  a  pressure.  Almost  any  one  knows  that 
wood  can  be  steamed  too  much.  Elm,  cottonwood,  etc., 
which  are  comparatively  easy  to  soften  with  steam  for 
cutting,  can  be  steamed  until  they  are  difficult  to  cut 
smoothly,  as  they  get  woolly  and  the  fibres  of  the  wood 
hang  across  the  knife,  and  the  general  effect  is  almost 
the  same  as  if  they  were  cut  with  a  rough-edged  knife. 
What  is  desired  is  to  soften  the  timber  to  the  highest 
degree  of  sponginess  without  loosening  the  fibres  of  the 
wood  from  each  other  to  such  an  extent  as  to  cause 
woolly  or  fuzzy  cutting.  There  are  really  several  trou- 
bles that  develop  from  excessive  steaming,  but  the  most 
serious  and  permanent  one  is  that  of  injury  to  the  wood 
itself  by  loosening  the  bond  of  the  fibres.  Other  inci- 
dental troubles  are  that  it  causes  cracking  of  the  bolts, 
which,  in  its  turn,  increases  the  size  of  the  waste  pile. 
The  principal  object  to  be  obtained  in  steaming  the 
wood  before  cutting,  is  to  extract  or  force  as  much  of 
the  sap  and  nitrogenous  substances  out  of  the  timber 
as  possible,  at  the  same  time  making  the  fibres  of  the 
wood  soft  and  pliable  so  that  it  will  shear  or  cut  easily, 
and  dry  quickly  after  being  cut,  in  order  to  lessen  the 
possibilities  of  the  staves  moulding.  When  staves  mould 
in  the  pile  it  is  evident  that  either  the  timber  was  not 
properly  steamed  and  the  sap  extracted,  the  steam  not 
hot  enough,  so  that  the  dampness  will  evaporate  from  the 
stave  quickly,  or  else  the  stock  is  piled  too  closely  to- 
gether, causing  it  to  heat  and  sweat.  To  properly  steam 
stave  bolts  of  beech,  birch,  sycamore,  hard  maple,  and 
gum,  requires  that  the  steam  be  more  or  less  dry  and 
of  good  pressure.  By  this  we  mean  that  exhaust  steam 
from  the  engine  alone  will  not  produce  satisfactory  re- 


220  COOPERAGE 

suits,  as  it  has  not  sufficient  pressure  to  enter  into  the 
hard  fibres  of  the  wood.  From  this  it  is  readily  ap- 
parent that  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  insure  effective 
results  to  construct  strong,  tight  steam-boxes  and  have 
at  all  times  a  sufficient  supply  of  good  steam. 

From  careful  observation  at  one  of  the  largest  stave 
mills  in  this  country,  where  hardwoods  are  cut  ex- 
clusively, it  has  been  found  that  by  the  addition  to  the 
factory  boilers  of  a  standard  feed  water  regulator, 
in  order  that  the  water  in  the  boilers  may  be  kept  as 
near  1%  gauge  as  possible,  with  the  steam  pressure 
maintained  at  100  pounds,  that  the  quality  of  the  steam 
is  improved,  that  it  drives  the  sap  out  of  the  timber 
quickly,  and  produces  a  brighter  and  smoother  stave 
than  if  no  attention  was  paid  to  feed  or  pressure  in 
the  boilers.  This  method  also  lessens  the  possibility 
of  mould  appearing  on  the  stave.  In  the  case  of  elm, 
cottonwood,  etc.,  this  method  is  reversed  by  increasing 
the  water  and  lowering  the  pressure  in  the  boilers,  as  if 
these  woods  are  subjected  to  too  severe  steaming  the, 
stock  will  appear  woolly  and  rough,  as  previously  ex- 
plained, and  is  often  mistaken  for  dead  timber. 

The  manufacture  of  gum  timber  into  staves  seems 
to  have  been  a  problem.  Most  "of  the  difficulty  experi- 
enced can  be  duly  traced  to  improper  steaming  and  joint- 
ing. If  more  attention  were  paid  to  details  in  steaming, 
no  doubt  these  difficulties  would  gradually  disappear. 
Gum  properly  manufactured  makes  an  excellent  stave, 
providing  the  fibres  of  the  wood  are  not  completely  shat- 
tered in  cutting,  caused  by  insufficient  or  improper  steam- 
ing. Where  gum  is  cut  entirely,  there  are  quite  a  few 
adherents  to  the  method  of  boiling  them,  after  the  man- 
ner of  hoop  plank,  instead  of  steaming  them.  By  boiling 
it  is  claimed  they  secure  a  much  better  stave,  and  experi- 
ments have  proven  that  the  wood  shears  easier  by  boil- 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  221 

ing  the  bolts  for  about  7  hours  than  if  they  were 
steamed  by  the  old  process  for  24  hours.  This  point  is 
well  worth  considering,  as  no  doubt  it  would  be  more 
economical  to  boil  them,  using  exhaust  steam,  for  7  hours, 
than  by  steaming  them  for  24  hours.  Of  course,  the 
problem  of  labor  would  have  to  be  taken  into  considera- 
tion, as  the  expense  of  handling  the  bolts  to  and  from 
the  boiling  vat  would  probably  be  greater.  The  whole 
problem  of  steaming  resolves  itself  into  this :  Where  tim- 
ber, such  as  elm,  cottonwood,  soft  or  silver  maple,  etc., 
is  to  be  cut  into  staves,  the  steaming  process  should  be 
of  a  mild  nature,  using  exhaust  steam  or  steam  of  a  very 
low  pressure.  There  seems  to  be  a  difference  of  opinion 
in  this  case  as  to  whether  live  or  exhaust  steam  should  be 
used.  Some  maintain  that  the  live  steam  is  the  best,  be- 
cause it  is  more  forceful,  while  others  show  a  preference 
for  exhaust  steam,  and  still  others  use  a  combination  of 
both  live  and  exhaust  steam.  A  great  deal  depends  upon 
the  condition  of  the  bolts  to  be  steamed  whether  or  not 
they  need  moisture  in  the  heating,  or  simply  need  heat 
alone,  and  have  sufficient  moisture  within  themselves. 
Naturally,  a  bolt  sawn  from  a  freshly  felled  tree  would 
have  considerable  moisture  within  itself,  and  would  only 
require  heat  sufficient  to  soften  the  fibres  of  the  wood, 
while  one  sawn  from  an  old  log  or  tree  that  had  been 
lying  in  the  woods  or  on  the  yard  for  some  time  would 
require  considerably  more  moisture  in  the  heating  in 
order  to  soften  the  fibres  of  the  wood  properly. 

Late  investigations  on  the  subject  of  steaming  have  de- 
veloped the  idea  that  too  much  heat  and  not  sufficient 
moisture  is  made  use  of.  Ordinarily,  stave  bolts  are 
steamed  approximately  24  hours  with  a  combination  of 
live  and  exhaust  steam.  It  is  now  thought  that  longer  time 
and  less  heat,  or  lower  pressure,  would  give  better  results. 
On  this  theory,  the  exhaust  steam  alone  should  be  better 


222  COOPERAGE 

than  the  live  steam,  because  it  is  not  quite  so  hot  and 
has  more  moisture.  But  in  the  case  of  hardwoods,  such 
as  beech,  birch,  sycamore,  hard  maple,  etc.,  it  has  been 
proven  that  the  steam  must  be  more  or  less  dry,  as  stated 
before,  in  order  to  secure  best  results. 

There  are  different  types  of  steam-boxes  in  use,  and 
the  tendency  is,  where  new  plants  are  constructed,  to 
make  them  of  concrete,  which  is  no  doubt  the  most  sat- 
isfactory method.  Although  steam-boxes  properly  con- 
structed of  timbers  have  in  some  instances  been  found 
to"  give  entire  satisfaction,  the  concrete  box,  which  is 
somewhat  more  expensive,  is  absolutely  tight,  and  prob- 
ably the  cheapest  in  the  long  run,  as  the  maintenance 
is  a  very  small  item. 

Where  steam-boxes  are  constructed  of  wood,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  rebuild  them  as  often  as  once  every  two 
or  three  years,  and  in  some  cases  it  has  been  found 
necessary  to  rebuild  them  oftener  than  that.  A  fairly 
good  construction  of  wooden  box  is  made  by  using 
6  x  6-inch  timbers,  each  additional  timber  being  bolted 
down  to  the  last  one  with  %-inch  bolts  12  inches  long,' 
spaced  about  18  inches  apart,  and  the  joints  prop- 
erly caulked  when  finished  with  oakum.  The  idea  of 
using  bolts  only  12  inches  long  enables  one  to  draw  the 
timbers  tighter  together  than  if  longer  ones  were  used, 
and  four  or  more  timbers  taken  at  one  time.  This  method 
makes  a  much  better  and  more  satisfactory  construction 
than  if  built  up  of  two  layers  of  tongue  and  grooved 
flooring  lined  with  tar  paper  between,  as  the  wood  nat- 
urally shrinks  and  swells  when  steam  is  admitted;  and 
eventually  the  inside  layer  will  buckle  or  raise  up,  and 
the  consequence  is  a  leaky  steam-box. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  concrete  for  this  purpose,  there 
is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  as  to  its  ultimate  value. 
Probably  the  chief  source  of  difficulty  and  disappoint- 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  223 

ment,  when  they  occur  from  its  use,  is  from  cracks  and 
from  the  work  costing  in  excess  of  all  previous  calcula- 
tions. There  may  be  other  sources  of  disappointment, 
such  as  improper  mixture,  unwise  designing,  or  ignorant 
handling,  but  where  the  boxes  are  properly  designed, 
placed  upon  good,  firm  foundations,  and  the  concrete 
properly  mixed  and  well  tamped  in  the  moulds,  and  re- 
inforced with  sufficient  iron  rods,  no  considerable  diffi- 
culty should  be  experienced,  and  the  steam-boxes  should 
give  perfect  satisfaction,  both  as  to  cost  of  maintenance 
and  quality  of  work  produced. 

This  problem  of  concrete  cracking  is  one  that  even  the 
experts  do  not  seem  able  to  explain  away  satisfactorily,  or 
to  positively  guard  against.  At  first  cracks  were  almost 
universally  attributed  to  faulty  foundations.  There  is 
no  doubt  but  that  at  least  a  part  of  them  are  due  to  this 
cause,  but  time  and  experiments  have  demonstrated  that 
in  monolithic  concrete  construction,  where  a  wall  is  put 
up  in  a  solid  mass  in  large  units,  cracks  will  develop, 
regardless  of  foundations.  It  appears  to  be  a  matter  of 
contraction  probably,  both  in  the  setting  of  the  cement 
and  the  changing  temperature  and  moisture  conditions 
of  the  weather  after  it  is  set.  Expansion  and  contrac- 
tion make  up  the  most  serious  problems  of  construction, 
and  must  be  taken  into  consideration  at  all  times. 

It  appears  to  the  writer  that  about  the  best  solution  of 
the  crack  problem  in  connection  with  the  use  of  concrete 
would  be  to  use  it  in  the  form  of  blocks  or  in  smaller 
units,  rather  than  what  is  termed  monolithic  work;  but 
it  would  be  a  matter  of  experiment  to  determine  whether 
this  form  of  construction  would  be  entirely  satisfactory 
for  use  as  a  steam-box.  It  has  been  used  in  this  form 
for  dry-kiln  construction,  and  found  to  give  excellent  re- 
sults, and  no  doubt  could  be  successfully  used  for  steam- 
ing purposes. 


224  COOPERAGE 

In  the  matter  of  costs  for  concrete  work  for  this  pur- 
pose, and  the  probable  reason  that  invariably  such  con- 
struction exceeds  the  costs  calculated,  contains  food  for 
thought.  As  an  illustration,  the  usual  mixture  for  concret- 
ing in  monolithic  form,  is  to  take  proportions  about  as  fol- 
lows :  One  part  good  Portland  cement,  two  parts  sharp 
sand,  and  four  parts  crushed  stone.  Counting  these  parts 
as  yards,  one,  two,  and  four  yards  make  a  total  of  seven 
yards;  but  instead  of  making  seven  yards  of  concrete, 
they  really  only  make  about  four  yards,  or  the  amount  of 
crushed  stone  put  in,  or,  in  other  words,  the  amount  of 
crushed  stone  represents  the  aggregate,  and  the  sand  and 
cement  simply  fill  in  the  voids  between  the  stone.  This  is 
probably  one  reason  why  concrete  work  invariably  ex- 
ceeds the  costs  calculated  upon. 

When  commencing  the  foundation  for  concrete  steam- 
boxes,  the  first  important  thing  to  consider  is  the 
nature  of  the  ground.  If  the  foundation  is  to  rest  on 
stone,  the  surface  which  is  to  receive  it  should  be 
flat  and  level,  or,  if  the  stone  is  sloping,  it  should 
be  cut  into  steps;  otherwise  the  foundation  may 
slide  or  part  and  cause  cracks  to  appear.  Damp  clay 
or  clay  that  is  continually  moist  is  slippery  and  makes 
a  poor  foundation,  as  it  is  treacherous  and  settles  un- 
evenly and  in  all  directions.  Dry  clay  has  a  tendency 
to  draw  moisture  from  the  air,  and  near  the  surface  will 
expand  and  contract,  depending  on  the  condition  of  the 
weather.  In  many  places  it  makes  a  poor  foundation,  but 
in  some  sections,  where  the  land  is  kept  well  drained 
and  the  surface  water  runs  away  quickly,  it  makes  a  good 
base  for  a  foundation,  and  may  be  trusted  with  from  one 
to  two  tons  per  square  foot,  when  the  foundation  goes 
from  four  to  five  feet  in  depth.  The  ideal  base  for  a 
foundation  for  concrete  work  is  "  hard-pan. "  This,  next 
to  stone,  is  the  nearest  to  being  non-compressible.  Next 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  225 

to  hard-pan  is  gravel  or  sand,  and  if  possible,  this  should 
be  compacted  with  large  quantities  of  water.  Either  of 
these  will  compress  or  settle  some,  but  can  be  depended 
upon  to  sustain  three  to  four  tons  per  square  foot  of  sur- 
face, this  depending  upon  conditions.  The  bottom  of  the 
foundations  should  be  below  frost  line,  otherwise  the  frost 
may  distort  them.  Between  four  and  five  feet  in  depth 
should  be  the  minimum.  Where  the  soil  is  uneven  and 
treacherous  from  being  continually  wet  or  swampy,  piles 
should  be  resorted  to.  These  should  be  spaced  about  2% 
feet  apart,  centre  to  centre,  and  sawn  off  not  higher  than 
the  line  of  permanent  moisture,  and  the  concrete  base 
built  over  them,  commencing  6  inches  below  the.  top  of 
the  piles.  This  running  of  the  tops  of  the  piles  up  into 
the  concrete  base  holds  them  so  they  cannot  spread,  and 
is  an  important  point  where  the  foundation  is  laid  in 
ground  of  this  nature.  If  proper  care  is  exercised  in 
the  foundation  work  of  concrete  steam-boxes,  no  diffi- 
culty of  a  serious  nature  will  be  experienced  through 
cracks  appearing  in  the  main  body  of  the  work.  As  a 
rule,  this,  the  most  important  point  in  concrete  construc- 
tion, has  been  given  the  least  attention.  In  mixing  the 
concrete,  the  sand  should  be  clean  and  sharp,  and  free 
from  soil  or  dirt  of  any  kind,  as  any  loam  mixed  with  it 
has  a  tendency  to  retard  its  setting,  and  the  completed 
work  will  be  somewhat  inferior.  Where  creek  sand  and 
gravel  are  used,  a  little  more  cement  is  necessary.  It  is 
calculated  that  sand  has  voids  amounting  to  one-third  of 
its  bulk,  so  that  if  one  part  of  cement  be  mixed  with  three 
parts  of  sand,  the  voids  will  be  filled,  and  there  will  be 
no  increase  of  volume  in  the  sand;  and  that  to  use  less 
cement  than  the  above  will  leave  voids  in  the  sand,  de- 
pending on  the  less  amount  used.  A  specially  good  brand 
of  cement  may  carry  four  parts  of  sand,  and  make  as 
strong  concrete  as  another  brand  will  when  carrying  three 


226  COOPEKAGE 

parts,  but  it  is  well  not  to  use  more  than  three  parts  sand 
to  one  part  cement,  and  even  two  to  .one  would  be  safer. 
A  good  brand  of  Portland  cement  should  be  used  in 
concrete  work  for  steam-boxes,  and  where  Eosendale 
cement  is  used,  it  would  be  well /to  use  even  less  sand. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lower-priced  cement  is 
not  always  the  cheapest.  The  stone  used  should  be 
crushed  from  a  good  quality  of  granite,  a  strong  lime- 
stone, or  trap-rock,  and  broken  so  that  it  would  pass 
through  a  2-inch  ring.  Stone  of  a  slaty  character  of  any 
kind  or  limestone  similar  in  form  to  slate  rock  does  not 
make  a  good  concrete.  The  mixture  should  be  in  the 
proportions  of  one  part  good  Portland  cement,  two 
parts  sharp  sand,  and  four  parts  broken  stone.  The 
cement  is  improved  by  working  and  driving  down  solid 
in  the  moulds,  and  only  sufficient  water  should  be  used, 
so  that  when  the  concrete  is  well  rammed  the  water  will 
just  show  on  the  surface.  After  the  moulds  have  been 
removed,  the  walls  should  be  faced  with  a  mixture  of  one 
part  cement  to  two  parts  sand,  putting  on  a  coat  about 
one  inch  thick.  To  do  this  work  it  will  take  approximately 
one  barrel  of  cement  to  every  14  square  yards  of  surface. 
If  the  above  information  is  followed  closely,  the  steam- 
boxes  when  finished  should  be  a  source  of  pleasure  to 
their  owner,  and  eliminate  all  difficulties  from  this  source. 

THE  DUTCH   OVEN   OK  BULLDOG   FURNACE 

Next  in  importance  to  good,  tight  steam-boxes,  ample 
steam  capacity  is  of  great  consequence,  and  experience 
has  proven  that  the  so-called  Dutch  oven  or  bulldog  fur- 
nace renders  more  and  better  satisfaction  in  stave  mills 
than  any  other  type,  as  it  is  not  only  a  labor  saver, 
but  all  kinds  of  culls,  sawdust,  bark,  etc.,  can  be  thrown 
into  it  without  much  effort,  making  it  easily  the  most 
economical  furnace  for  this  purpose.  And  it  is  remark- 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE 


227 


able  how  much  service  can  be  secured  from  a  modern- 
sized  boiler  with  this  attachment. 

A  water  heater  also  adds  a  great  deal  to  the  capacity 
of  a  boiler,  and  it  is  often  cheaper  to  install  one,  in  pref- 
erence to  adding  another  unit,  or  purchasing  a  larger 
boiler.  This  Dutch  oven  is  simply  an  extension  built 
in  front  of  the  boiler  (see  Fig.  73),  into  which  the  fire 
grates  are  placed,  instead  of  being  put  inside  the  boiler 
wall  proper,  and  underneath  the  front  end  of  the  boiler. 
The  details  of  construction  differ,  but  the  general  idea 


^PT^r^  /fey&v.  .:&££ 


** 


FIG.  73.     DUTCH-OVEN  OR  BULL-DOG  FURNACE. 

is  the  same  in  all  cases.  These  ovens  are  generally  built 
about  10  feet  long  and  should  be  fully  as  wide,  and  can 
very  well  be  even  wider  than  the  boiler  front  itself.  The 
oven  illustrated  shows  the  sawdust  being  conveyed  direct 
to  the  furnace  through  the  blowpipe,  and  can  be  dropped 
in  equally  as  well  with  a  chain  conveyor.  There  should 
be  an  extra  large  opening  on  top  to  allow  the  fireman 
to  shovel  or  scrape  the  larger  pieces,  blocks,  etc.,  into 
the  furnace  from  the  floor  level.  The  blowpipe  or  chain 
conveyor  should  be  arranged  in  such  a  manner,  having 
an  extra  leg  or  side  extension  with  a  switch  or  damper 


228  COOPERAGE 

attached,  so  that  when  no  fuel  is  wanted  directly  under 
the  boiler,  it  can  be  thrown  to  one  side. 

STAVE    BOLT    EQUALIZING    MACHINE 

When  the  stave  bolts  leave  the  steam-boxes  after  hav- 
ing been  properly  steamed,  they  are  taken  directly  to 
the  bolt  equalizer,  as  shown  in  Pig.  74.  This  machine 
should  be  located  on  the  left-hand  side  of  the  stave  cutter 


FIG.  74.     STAVE  BOLT  EQUALIZER. 

and  about  three  feet  from  it,  so  that  the  operator  can 
place  the  equalized  bolt  on  a  rack  convenient  for  the  man 
at  the  stave  cutter.  These  bolts  should  be  barked  or  the 
bark  well  removed  before  they  are  equalized,  in  order 
that  the  work  will  not  interfere  with  the  stave  cutters. 
The  important  work  of  these  equalizers  is  to  equalize 
the  ends  of  the  bolts  to  the  desired  length  and  leave  them 
smooth  and  square  on  the  ends.  The  saws  for  this  ma- 
chine should  be  32  inches  in  diameter,  11  gauge  straight, 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  229 

with  64  teeth,  and  maintained  at  a  speed  of  1,800  revolu 
tions  per  minute;  the  pitch  line  of  tooth  should  run 
through  the  eye  of  the  saw.  An  equalizer  rig,  one  that 
cuts  both  ends  of  the  stick  at  once,  is  one  class  of  sawing 
machine  that  you  cannot  give  lead  to  clear  the  body  of 
the  saw;  consequently  there  is  more  or  less  trouble  with 
the  stock  binding  between  the  saws.  Sometimes  warmth 
from  the  journal  boxes  will  cause  enough  expansion  in 
the  eye  of  the  saws  to  make  them  incline  to  dish  a  little, 
and  as  your  stock  is  passing  between  them  on  the  inner 
side  at  all  times,  the  tendency  is  naturally  to  dish  out, 
increasing  the  length  of  the  material  a  little  and  causing 
the  stock  to  bind,  which  augments  the  heating  and  makes 
the  trouble  worse.  Where  saws  are  interchangeable,  a 
little  relief  can  be  had  by  changing  sides  with  the  saws 
from  time  to  time ;  where  this  is  not  practical  or  involves 
too  much  trouble,  about  the  only  immediate  remedy  is  to 
give  more  set  on  the  inside  of  the  saw.  Of  course,  by 
doing  this  the  inside  teeth  simply  tear  down  the  wood, 
and  leave  a  woolly  end,  giving  the  staves  a  ragged  ap- 
pearance. Another  and  probably  better  method  is  to 
hammer  them  with  more  tension  out  near  the  rim,  be- 
cause they  cut  hot  timber,  which  has  a  tendency  to  heat 
the  body  of  the  saw,  and  make  it  expand  more  than  if 
cutting  cold  timber.  There  is  a  point  about  filing  equal- 
izer saws  which  is  worth  keeping  in  mind.  Sometimes  in 
cross-cutting  stave  bolts,  you  will  notice  instead  of  the 
end  cutting  out  smoothly,  the  corner  where  the  saw  comes 
out  shows  splinters,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
whiskers,  which  at  times  are  rather  annoying.  These 
are  frequently  due  to  the  fact  that  the  average  cross-cut 
saw  used  in  equalizing  wears  most  on  the  side  next  to 
the  bolt,  or  inside,  because  that  is  where  the  heavy  tim- 
ber is  and  the  rigid  cutting  done;  and  in  the  process  of 
filing  from  time  to  time,  the  inside  teeth  of  the  saw  be- 


230  COOPERAGE 

come  a  little  shorter  than  the  outside  teeth,  and  that  is 
really  what  makes  the  splinters  or  whiskers.  The  out- 
side teeth  cut  through  just  a  fraction  ahead  of  the  inside 
ones,  and  that  leaves  the  fibres  of  the  wood  loose  so  that 
they  are  driven  back  on  the  finished  end  instead  of  cutting 
clean.  The  way  to  get  the  clean  cut  on  this  inside  or 
finished  end,  is  to  joint  the  saws  so  that  they  are  a  little 
shorter  on  the  outside,  say,  %2  of  an  inch,  or  it  won't 
hurt  to  make  it  Me  of  an  inch;  then  file  carefully  to  a 
point  and  note  the  results,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the 
whiskers  or  splinters,  instead  of  being  on  the  bolt  end, 
are  on  the  end  block  that  is  cut  off,  where  they  will  do  no 
harm,  and  it  really  makes  the  saw  run  better  and  cut 
cleaner.  In  fitting  equalizer  saws  this  is  a  good-point 
to  keep  in  mind,  and  it  will  not  merely  have  to  be  done 
once,  but  quite  frequently,  because  the  inside  teeth  are 
the  ones  which  do  the  most  work,  and  the  outside  ones 
will  have  to  be  kept  jointed  down  from  time  to  time  as 
the  saw  wears.  Where  equalizer  saws  of  an  uneven  gauge 
are  used,  they  should  be  made  straight  on  the  inside,  to 
allow  the  bolt  to  go  forward  toward  the  centre  of  the  saw 
without  bearing  against  it,  which  would  cause  them  to 
flare  out  at  the  rim,  making  the  bolt  on  the  side  cut 
through  a  trifle  longer.  This  is  one  of  the  causes  of  bolts 
not  being  cut  square,  and  produces  staves  of  uneven 
length,  a  serious  matter,  but  one  that  is  neglected  in  the 
average  factory. 

CRACKS   IN    EQUALIZER    SAWS 

These  cracks  in  equalizer  and  cross-cut  saws  of  one 
kind  and  another  present  a  very  interesting  study,  and 
one  that  is  very  elusive  when  you  try  to  run  it  down  "to 
an  exact  solution.  It  is  a  peculiar  fact  that  cross-cut 
saws  crack  more  frequently  than  ripsaws,  and  a  big  cir- 
cular mill  saw  very  seldom  cracks,  while  the  little  cross- 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTUBE  231 

cut  saw  has  such  a  general  habit  of  cracking  ihat  it  may 
be  called  a  sort  of  family  characteristic.  "It's  the  shape 
of  the  teeth  and  the  sharp  gullets,"  the  saw  man  says, 
and  advises  you  to  use  round-edge  files  or  take  other 
means  of  preventing  them  from  getting  square  and  sharp 
gullets.  Still,  it  is  a  peculiar  fact  that  after  a  crack  or 
two  comes  in  the  rim  of  the  cross-cut  saw,  you  can  file 
all  the  square  and  sharp  gullets  you  want  to  and  it's  not 
very  likely  to  do  any  more  cracking,  not  nearly  as  likely 
as  it  is  to  crack  once,  even  though  you  take  all  manner  of 
pains  to  prevent  square  gullets  and  sharp  corners.  The 
thing  to  do,  of  course,  when  a  crack  makes  its  appear- 
ance, is  to  drill  a  hole  at  the  end  of  the  crack,  so  that  it 
may  not  go  farther.  The  cause  of  cracks  comes  from  the 
rim  or  outer  edge  of  the  saw  being  tight,  requiring  more 
tension  to  prevent  the  saw  being  wavy  on  the  rim  when 
it  is  speeded  up,  and  gets  the  expanding  strain  of  centrif- 
ugal force,  and  also  the  strain  of  cutting  against  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  In  order  to  insure  the  saw  standing 
up  to  its  work,  the  saw  man  generally  puts  in  a  little  more 
tension  than  is  called  for,  so  as  to  give  a  factor  of  safety 
to  take  care  of  the  let-down  that  comes  from  service.  As 
a  consequence,  the  rim  of  the  saw  is  like  a  tight  band  on 
a  hub  or  anything  of  like  nature,  and  a  little  wrench  or 
jerk  starts  it  cracking.  There  is  really  no  universal  rem- 
edy for  it ;  the  matter  might  be  helped  a  little  if  you  have 
the  tools  and  will  do  it  carefully  by  hammering  lightly 
around  the  base  of  the  teeth,  so  as  to  expand  the  extreme 
outer  rim  a  little,  and  leave  the  supporting  tension  of  the 
saw  just  inside  the  rim,  say,  about  a  half  inch,  and  leave 
the  part  of  the  saw  that  carries  the  teeth  free  from  in- 
ternal strain,  and  to  support  only  that  caused  by  the  cut. 

STAVE-CUTTING    MACHINE 

After  the  stave  bolts  have  been  properly  barked  and 
equalized,  they  are  then  taken  to  the  stave-cutting  ma- 


232  COOPERAGE 

chine,  a  front  view  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  75.  For 
this  purpose  a  machine  is  generally  used  having  a  knife 
36  inches  long  and  6%  inches  wide,  with  a  face  ground  to 
a  circle  of  20  inches.  The  steel  rib  facings  should  be 
reversible  and  hardened  at  each  end  to  prevent  wear  and 
discoloring  the  staves.  In  some  cases  brass  facings  are 
used  and  found  to  give  good  satisfaction.  These  ribs, 
which  are  the  gauges  that  determine  the  thickness  of  the 
stave,  should  be  kept  in  perfect  circle  with  the  tumbler. 
The  tumbler  should  be  true  on  its  face  and  the  knife 


FIG.  75.     STAVE  CUTTER. 

ground  as  thin  as  is  possible  without  injuring  its  strength, 
and  should  be  set  with  a  lead  or  draft  of  %2  inch.  The 
speed  of  the  machine  should  be  as  fast  as  the  operator 
can  feed  it  and  perform  good  work;  generally  150  to  160 
strokes  per  minute  is  the  average  speed.  In  the  opera- 
tion of  this  machine  is  seen  the  great  advantage  of  prop- 
erly flitched  timber,  which,  if  sawn  out  in  proper  shape, 
makes  the  work  of  the  cutter  light,  and  shows  increased 
output  with  less  time  and  labor  than  if  the  timber  ^as 
split  or  riven ;  the  cutter  simply  places  the  timber  in  the 
machine  and  it  almost  feeds  itself.  The  trimming  of  the 
bolt  to  get  it  in  shape  to  cut,  and  the  tipping  and  turning 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  233 

that  is  necessary  in  cutting  split  timber  is  almost  entirely 
avoided  if  the  timber  is  sawn,  and  turns  into  staves  a 
large  per  cent,  of  material  that  usually  increases  the  fuel 
pile  when  cutting  split  timber.  This  is  what  makes  it 
possible  easily  to  cut  from  sawn  bolts  or  flitches  from 
50,000  to  60,000  staves  in  10  hours.  The  cutter  operating 
this  machine  must  give  proper  attention  at  all  times  to 
the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  see  that  his  bolt  is  turned  and 
fed  into  the  machine  in  such  a  manner  that  the  knife  in 
cutting  through  the  flitches  will  be  running  as  near  quar- 
tering as  practical,  which  means  that  the  knife  must 
start  into  the  wood  and  cut  from  bark  to  heart  or  vice 
versa,  thus  crossing  the  grain  properly  and  making  a 
nice,  clean,  smooth  stave,  providing  the  timber  has  been 
first  properly  steamed.  This  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant points  in  connection  with  stave-cutting,  and  every 
cutter  should  endeavor  to  make  this  a  study,  as  if  the 
grain  of  the  wood  is  not  consulted  the  staves  will  be 
rough  and  of  uneven  thickness  and  will  not  retain  their 
concave-convex  shape  while  drying  and  seasoning,  which 
is  most  important.  When  a  stave  which  has  been  worked 
into  a  barrel,  afterward  loses  its  concave  shape  and  be- 
comes convex  toward  the  inside  of  the  barrel,  it  has 
surely  not  been  properly  cut  with  the  grain,  and  con- 
siderably lessens  the  strength  of  the  package,  as  with 
the  least  jolt  the  package  is  liable  to  collapse.  This  item 
of  loss  is  greatest  in  staves  that  change  their  shape  or 
become  flat  or  convex  before  they  are  made  into  the  bar- 
rel, and  are  unfit  for  the  poorest  quality  of  culls.  All 
woods  do  not  show  the  grain  plainly  on  the  end  of  the 
stick,  as  in  oak,  but  the  stave  cutter  must  know  and  con- 
sider the  grain  as  if  he  could  see  it.  When  he  is  cutting 
staves  from  cottonwood,  gum,  and  other  woods  that  do 
not  show  the  grain,  he  must  use  good  judgment  and  fol- 
low the  grain  from  the  shape  of  the  stick,  as  he  can  read- 


234  COOPERAGE 

ily  distinguish  the  bark  or  sap  side  from  the  heart  side. 
Some  cutters  maintain  that  these  woods  can  be  cut  any 
way,  either  with  or  without  the  grain,  but  it  has  been 
proven  by  long  experience  that  they  do  not  hold  their 
shape  and  do  not  cut  smooth.  A  stave  cutter  that  insists 
that  the  grain  of  cottonwood  or  gum  need  not  be  con- 
sulted makes  many  more  defective  staves,  and  is  the  main 
cause  of  variance  in  quality  as  between  one  stave  mill 
and  another. 

Any  one  of  experience  knows  that  there  is  a  vast 
difference  even  in  the  quality  of  stock  made  in  the 
same  neighborhood,  and  it  can  all  be  traced  to  this  one 
point,  of  properly  cutting  with  the  grain.  Whether  the 
wood  used  be  cottonwood,  elm,  or  beech,  the  grain  should 
at  all  times  be  consulted.  Not  only  is  thq  variance  in 
quality  of  staves  confined  to  different  plants,  but  often 
in  the  same  factory  and  from  the  same  rick  of  staves  two 
distinct  qualities  of  stock  may  be  discovered,  showing 
probably  that  one  cutter  observes  the  grain,  while  his 
fellow-workman  does  not.  Most  consumers  have  learned 
to  understand  that  quality  can  be  changed  at  any  par- 
ticular plant,  either  intentionally  or  through  carelessness, 
and  on  very  short  notice ;  also,  that  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  staves  shipped  from  the  same  locality,  and  this 
can  also  be  traced  to  that  one  important  point  of  cutting 
with  the  grain.  As  to  the  proper  thickness  staves  should 
be  cut,  the  following  measurements  are  considered  stand- 
ard, when  the  staves  are  dry  and  in  condition  for  ship- 
ment, and  should  be  adhered  to  as  closely  as  possible : 

ELM  STAVES 

20-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  281/4-in.  staves,  5  staves  to  \%  inches. 
21-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  30-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  1%  inches. 
22-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  32-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  1%  inches. 
24-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  33-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  J%  inches. 
34-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  1%  inches. 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE           235 

GUM  AND  COTTONWOOD   STAVES 

20-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  30-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  U%6  ins. 

21  -inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  32-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  l1^  ins- 

22-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  33-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  li%6  ins. 

231/4-in.  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  34-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  l1^  ins- 

24-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  36-inch  staves,  5  staves  to  2  inches. 

28%-in.  staves,  5  staves  to  l1^  ins<  40-inch  staves,  5  staves  to 


OAK,  BEECH  AND  MAPLE  STAVES 

20-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  30-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  21^  ins.* 

21-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  32-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2%  inches. 

22-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  33-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2y8  inches. 

23^-in.  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  34-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2%  inches. 

24-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2  inches.  36-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2%g  ins. 

281/^-in.  staves,  6  staves  to  2%  ins.  40-inch  staves,  6  staves  to  2%6  ins. 

NUMBER  OF  STAVES  PER  CORD 

The  number  of  staves  generally  produced  from  a  cubic 
cord  or  a  rank  of  stave  bolts  varies  considerably,  as  a 
great  deal  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  logs  from  which 
the  bolts  were  cut,  and  upon  the  kind  and  quality  of  the 
timber.  For  instance,  1,000  feet  of  logs  24  inches  and 
over  in  diameter  will  make  about  1%  cords  of  stave  bolts 
32  inches  long,  while  1,000  feet  of  logs  averaging  from 
12  to  18  inches  in  diameter  will  make  nearly  2  cords  of 
bolts.  From  this  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  more  staves 
are  produced  from  logs  of  small  diameter  than  from 
1,000  feet  of  logs  measuring  24  inches  and  over.  The 
general  average  appears  to  be  about  2,400  staves  30 
inches  in  length  from  1,000  feet  of  logs,  scaled  Doyle 
rule,  where  small  and  large  logs  are  cut,  as  well  as  good 
and  bad  ones.  Now,  getting  down  to  cord  measurements, 
a  pile  of  stave  bolts  4  feet  high,  12  feet  long,  and  32  inches 
wide  equals  128  cubic  feet  or  1  cubic  cord,  and  a  good 
average  production  would  be  about  2,000  staves  from 
cottonwood,  gum,  sycamore,  etc.,  and  about  1,900  staves 
from  beech,  maple,  etc.  Another  measurement  used  con- 

*It  has  been  the  custom  to  cut  30-inch  hardwood  staves  6  to  2^6  inches 
instead  of  2y8  inches,  as  this  thickness  is  more  preferable  to  all  the  large 
machine  coopers. 


236  COOPERAGE 

siderably  is  a  rank,  which  is  figured  thus:  4  feet  high, 
8  feet  long,  and  32  inches  wide;  this  equals  32  square 
feet  or  85%  cubic  feet,  and  is  considered  a  rank.  From 
a  rank  of  stave  bolts  the  general  average  appears  to  be 
about  as  follows:  For  ash,  925  staves;  for  cottonwood, 
1,235  staves;  for  mixed  timber,  such  as  gum,  sycamore, 
etc.,  1,135  staves. 

THE   CYLINDER   STAVE   SAW 

In  the  manufacture  of  slack  staves  from  hemlock,  tam- 
arack, jack  pine,  pitch  pine,  spruce,  and  woods  of  like 
nature,  the  cylinder  or  drum  saw  is  generally  used.  (Fig. 


FIG.  76.     CYLINDER  STAVE   SAW. 

76.)  As  a  general  proposition,  the  cutting  of  pine  or  the 
softer  woods  on  veneer  machines  or  slicers  has  developed 
some  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  wood.  According 
to  the  logical  deductions  from  most  of  our  well-known 
theories  and  practices  in  woodworking,  pine,  by  its 
nature,  cannot  be  successfully  steamed  and  cut,  and  espe- 
cially is  this  true  of  the  yellow  or  pitch  pine  of  the  South. 
Notwithstanding  all  this,  however,  we  are  confronted  with 
the  fact  that  lots  of  yellow  pine  is  being  cut  to-day,  and 
has  been  for  the  past  few  years,  on  veneer  machines  for 
light  packages  and  crates,  including  as  a  prominent  item 
orange  boxes.  In  the  softer  pines  of  the  North,  in  the 
cutting  of  lighter  material,  such  as  basket  splints,  etc., 
pine  appears  to  work  nicely  also;  still,  those  who  have 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  237 

attempted  to  work  pine  and  such  woods  into  slack  barrel 
staves  and  cut  it  with  a  knife  say  that  it  does  not  work 
successfully.     It  seems  that  between  the  steaming,  and 
the  straining  and  rupture  of  the  grain  while  cutting,  the 
structure  and  fibres  of  the  wood  are  so  shattered  that 
after  it  dries  a  great  many  of  the  staves  split  apart, 
falling  in  some  xcases  almost  into  splinters.     The  wood 
usually  separates  along  the  line  between  the  hard  and 
soft  streaks,  which  is  termed  winter  and  summer-wood, 
and  in  appearance  bears  some  resemblance  to  wood  that 
has  been  beaten,  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  what  is 
known  as  racking  black  ash  strips  to  make  butter-tub 
hoops.    Some  of  the  pine  works  better  than  others,  but 
there  is  enough  of  this  trouble  present  at  all  times  to 
render  the  work  generally  unsatisfactory  and  make  it 
more  desirable  to  use  cylinder  stave  saws  to  make  slack 
barrel  staves  out  of  pine  wood,  whether  large  or  small. 
You  can,  of  course,  cut  them  on  a  circular  saw  also,  mak- 
ing straight-sawn  staves  of  the  narrow  sort,  such  as  is 
used  for  salt  and  lime  barrels  or  similar  packages,  and 
which  are  frequently  made  from  slabs  and  waste  about 
the  sawmill.    In  other  words,  this  straight  sawing  process 
will  do  where  pine  staves  are  a  mere  incident  in  some 
other  work;  but  where  the  making  of  staves  from  pine 
is  a  prominent  factor,  practically  the   only   successful 
process  of  manufacture  is  the  use  of  the  cylinder  or  drum 
saw.    Where  gum  is  sawn  on  a  cylinder  stave  saw,  it  has 
been  found  by  experience  that  it  takes  a  heavier  corner 
on  the  teeth  when  sawing  this  wood  than  is  required  for 
cutting  oak.    This  appears  contrary  to  what  one  would 
naturally  suppose.    Upon  careful  examination  of  the  two 
woods,  the  natural  inference  would  be  that  the  heavier 
corner  would  be  required  for  the  oak  and  that  any  kind 
of  a  light  corner  would  answer  for  gum.     But  expert 
cylinder  saw-filers  contend  differently,  and  state  that 


238  COOPERAGE 

not  only  heavier  corners,  but  more  care  is  required  in 
filing  for  gum  than  for  oak.  In  filing  the  saws,  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  teeth  are  kept  at  the  same  width 
and  the  throats  or  gullets  at  the  same  depth,  so  that  the 
saw  is  always  in  perfect  running  balance.  The  higher 
the  speed  of  the  saw  the  more  important  this  matter  of 
balance  becomes,  and  it  is  always  of  more  importance 
than  the  average  filer  gives  it  credit  for  being.  First,  see 
that  the  teeth  are  of  even  length  all  around,  which  can 
be  accomplished  by  holding  the  side  of  an  old,  worn-out 
emery  wheel  lightly  against  point  of  teeth  while  saw  is 
in  motion ;  then  file  the  cutting  edge  square  with  the  face 
or  front  of  tooth,  using  an  ordinary  8-inch  mill  saw  file, 
to  obtain  the  correct  depth  of  tooth.  After  teeth  have  all 
been  made  of  even  length,  chalk  the  surface  of  the  saw 
sufficient  to  retain  a  pencil  mark,  on  which  scribe  a  line 
%e  inch  from  point  of  tooth;  then  file  each  one  carefully 
to  this  line,  using  a  %-inch  round  file,  in  order  that  the 
throats  or  gullets  are  round  at  the  bottom,  as  sharp, 
square  corners  will  eventually  cause  breakage  or  cracks 
to  appear  in  saw.  As  to  the  proper  pitch  required  for 
cylinder  saw  teeth,  different  people  have  varying  ideas 
on  the  matter,  just  as  they  do  in  shaping  the  teeth;  but 
this  rule  has  been  found  by  experience  to  give  entire 
satisfaction.  Draw  a  line  6  inches  lengthwise  of  saw — 
that  is,  from  point  of  tooth  toward  pulley  end — then 
measure  carefully  from  this  point  4  inches,  keeping  at 
right  angles  with  first  line  or  parallel  with  edge  of  saw ; 
then  from  that  point  draw  a  line  to  the  point  of  saw  tooth, 
and  this  will  give  the  angle  or  pitch  desired.  It  is  only 
necessary  to  lay  out  one  tooth  in  the  manner  described, 
after  which  a  tin  templet  can  be  cut  to  correspond  with 
same  and  the  balance  of  the  teeth  marked  out  and  dressed 
accordingly.  The  set  required  for  a  cylinder  saw  should 
be  the  least  amount  possible  in  order  to  clear  the  saw, 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTUBE  239 

and  where  spring-set  is  used  should  not  extend  more  than 
one-third  the  depth  of  tooth.  A  uniform  set  can  be  ob- 
tained by  using  a  metal  templet  and  springing  each  tooth 
to  same.  Spring-set  is  no  longer  used  and  is  not  a  desir- 
able method,  as  it  weakens  the  tooth,  and  where  knotty 
timber  is  sawn  the  teeth  have  a  tendency  to  bend  and 
eventually  break  off  altogether.  Swage-set  is  now  consid- 
ered more  satisfactory,  and  there  are  on  the  market  two 
or  more  eccentric  swages  made  especially  for  use  on  cylin- 
der saws,  any  one  of  which  will  give  good  results  if  prop- 
erly used.  After  the  saw  is  swaged,  a  swage  shaper  should 
be  used,  as  no  side  file  will  work  on  this  type  of  saw. 
Give  a  little  lead  to  the  carriage  by  measuring  from  saw 
to  inside  edge  of  carriage  while  saw  is  in  motion ;  Me  inch 
will  likely  be  enough.  Use  a  tightener  on  belt  and  see 
that  the  speed  is  maintained  at  1,800  revolutions  per 
minute. 

SWING    CUT-OFF    SAW 

A  swing  cut-off  saw  of  the' type 
illustrated  in  Fig/  77  is  a  good, 
handy  rig  for  a  stave  mill,  and 
should  always  be  considered  as 
part  of  an  outfit.  There  are  uses 
innumerable  for  a  machine  of  this 
class,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  the  equalizing  to  shorter 
lengths  the  cull  staves  which 
come  from  the  stave  cutters.  The 
frame  of  the  saw  here  shown  con- 
sists of  wrought-iron  pipe  se- 
curely held  together  and  braced 
by  cast-iron  braces.  The  stand- 
ard distance  from  ceiling  to  cen- 
tre of  saw  is  8  feet,  which  length 

is  suitable  for  an  11-foot  ceiling,  FIG.  77.    SWING  CUT-OFF  SAW. 


240 


COOPERAGE 


but  they  are  made  in  longer  or  shorter  lengths,  as  desired. 
Generally  a  saw  16  inches  in  diameter  is  used.  The  tight 
and  loose  pulleys  are  8  inches  diameter  by  4%-inch  face, 
and  should  travel  625  revolutions  per  minute. 

STAVE   PILING  AND  AIR-SEASONING 

In  a  great  majority  of  stave  mills,  after  the  staves  are 
cut  or  sawn  they  are  piled  on  the  yard  or  under  open 
sheds  to  season,  called  air-drying,  while  others  put  the 
staves  direct  from  the  knife  into  dry  kilns.  (This  sub- 
ject will  be  found  more  fully  presented  in  Section  IX  of 
this  work.)  In  piling  stock  in  the  open  or  under  sheds 
built  for  this  purpose  (see  Fig.  78)  considerable  care 
and  attention  are  necessary,  in  order  to  insure  that  the 


FIG.  78.     VIEW  OF  STAVE  PILING  SHEDS    AND  LOG  POND. 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  241 

work  be  properly  done.  Some  manufacturers  are  of  the 
opinion  that  after  staves  are  made,  the  important  part 
has  been  accomplished  and  that  they  can  be  piled  in  any 
old  place  and  in  almost  any  shape  or  manner  which  sug- 
gests itself  to  the  sometimes  inexperienced  piler.  This 
is  a  very  grave  error,  as  by  improper  piling  valuable 
limber  is  liable  to  be  wasted,  and  this  is  not  the  stage  in 
the  manufacture  where  waste  should  occur.  If  there  must 
be  waste,  let  it  occur  in  the  woods  or  before  so  much  time 
and  labor  have  been  expended  uponx  it.  It  appears  to  be 
the  most  difficult  problem  for  some  manufacturers  to 
realize  and  appreciate  the  value  of  expending  a  little 
more  time  and, labor  in  raising  their  stave  piles  suf- 
ficiently clear  of  the  ground. 

On  a  visit  to  the  yards  of  some  mills  where  staves  are 
piled  for  air-seasoning,  one  will  find  many  cases  of  gross 
carelessness,  where  good,  well-manufactured  staves  are 
piled  so  nearly  flat  on  the  ground  that  the  grass  and  weeds 
growing  up  around  not  only  hide  the  poorly  laid  founda- 
tion, but  obstruct  and  retard  the  proper  circulation  of 
air  through  the  several  layers  on  the  bottom  of  the  pile. 
Eventually,  when  these  staves  are  taken  to  the  jointers,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  majority  of  them  are  stained  or  have 
turned  black  and  sour  from  moisture  and  lack  of  proper 
air  circulation  incident  to  being  kept  close  to  the  ground. 
Not  infrequently  some  are  found  to  be  so  rotten  and 
worm-eaten  as  to  be  entirely  worthless.  A  great  deal 
can  be  done  toward  facilitating  the  drying  of  stock  if 
the  staves  are  piled  on  pieces  of  timber  and  kept  away 
from  the  ground  as  far  as  possible,  with  the  piles  sepa- 
rated as  far  as  the  binders  will  reach,  or  at  least  14  inches, 
to  allow  of  good  air  circulation  between  the  piles,  and 
with  a  tunnel  about  18  or  20  inches  square  running  cross- 
wise throughout  the  centre  of  the  piles,  and  at  the  bottom, 
directly  opposite  one  another,  so  that  where  there  is 


242  COOPERAGE 

a  series  of  piles  this  opening  makes  a  continuous  tunnel 
throughout  them  all.  This  opening  or  tunnel  has  a  ten- 
dency to  create  air  currents  in  and  about  the  piles,  and 
considerably  facilitates  drying  or  seasoning,  and  should 
not  be  omitted. 

If  there  is  nothing  near  at  hand  suitable  to  pile  upon, 
which  will  furnish  a  good  foundation,  why  not  get  some- 
thing? There  are  generally  a  lot  of  saplings  or  some- 
thing of  the  kind  in  the  stave  woods  that  can  be  had 
and  used  to  advantage  in  making  a  pile  foundation. 
If  something  of  this  kind  was  secured,  and  the  bark  re- 
moved, one  or  two  sides  flattened  if  thought  necessary, 
and  then  take  some  of  those  cull  stave  bolts,  and,  instead 
of  laying  them  flat  on  the  ground,  dig  a  small  hole  and 
set  them  on  end  to  form  posts,  on  which  the  saplings  could 
be  placed  in  the  shape  of  stringers,  it  would  make  a  pile 
foundation  that  would  be  clear  of  the  ground  and  would 
let  the  air  currents  circulate  freely  through  and  under  the 
piles  and  prevent  moisture  coming  up  into  the  pile,  and 
so  insure  staves  in  the  bottom  of  the  pile  being  as  dry  and 
bright  as  those  up  toward  the  top. 

It  matters  not  just  how  these  details  are  carried  out,  as 
one  should  naturally  be  governed  in  this  by  local  condi- 
tions, but  it  looks  as  if  there  should  be  an  awakening  to 
the  necessity  of  getting  stave  piles  clear  of  the  ground. 
What  is  needed  is  more  active  steps  in  the  work  of  spend- 
ing a  little  more  time  and  energy  in  piling  staves  to  save 
trouble  and  loss  of  stock  and  profits  on  some  of  the  stock, 
because  of  deterioration  in  the  piles  for  lack  of  this  atten- 
tion. We  have  often  seen  a  good  rick  of  staves  spoiled  by 
undue  exposure,  being  practically  neglected  after  they 
were  on  the  yard.  Open  sheds  are  now  considered  by  the 
progressive  manufacturers  as  being  the  most  economical 
and  the  only  method  by  which  staves  should  be  piled  for 
proper  air-seasoning.  The  sheds  should  be  built  to 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTUEE  243 

suit  the  location,  but  where  practicable  should  be  made 
about  20  feet  wide  and  100  to  150  feet  long.  (See  Fig. 
78.)  They  are  not  very  expensive,  as  no  floor  or  sides 
are  required;  then  the  staves  should  be  piled  crosswise 
of  this  shed,  making  short  and  substantial  piles,  and  when 


FIG.  79.     SLACK  STAVE  FOOT-POWER 
JOINTER. 

jointing  out,  the  oldest  or  the  ones  subjected  to  air-sea- 
soning the  longest  should  always  be  taken  first;  in  this 
way  one  is  always  shipping  the  best-seasoned  stock,  and 
the  staves  will  not  be  liable  to  rot  on  account  of  remain- 
ing on  the  yard  too  long.  Stave  piles  should  be  at  least 
8  inches  off  the  ground,  and  the  grass  and  weeds  kept 
cleaned  away,  as  any  sort  of  vegetation  has  a  tendency 
to  draw  dampness;  and  in  piling,  the  staves  should  be 
laid  flat,  with  the  least  amount  of  lap  possible,  in  order 


244  COOPERAGE 

to  allow  of  good  circulation,  and  the  piles  kept  straight 
and  orderly.  It  is  also  considered  good  practice  to  leave 
a  small  opening  on  the  bottom  and  in  the  centre  of  each 
pile,  say,  18  or  20  inches  square,  so  that  each  opening  is 


FIG.  80.     SLACK  STAVE  "POWER"  JOINTER. 

directly  opposite  the  one  in  the  next  succeeding  pile, 
making  a  continuous  air  duct  through  the  entire  lot,  which 
facilitates  drying  considerably. 


STAVE  JOINTING 


Next  in  order,  and  of  much  importance  in  slack  stave 
manufacture,  is  the  jointing;  for  this  purpose  the  ma- 
chine illustrated  in  Fig.  79  is  largely  used,  and  where  the 
jointer  can  be  made  stationary,  the  power  jointer,  as 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  245 

shown  in  Fig.  80,  is  generally  used,  as  it  is  much  easier 
to  operate,  and  when  in  the  hands  of  an  experienced 
operator  considerably  more  staves  can  be  jointed  than 
by  the  foot-power  machine.    In  the  process  of  jointing 
staves,  too  little  attention  is  often  given  to  this  branch 
of  manufacture.    A  jointing  outfit  is  practically  a  little 
factory  in  itself,  operating  off  in  one  corner  of  the  yard, 
where  you  place  full  confidence  in  the  ability  of  the 
jointer.    His  machine  does  the  work  poorly  or  well,  de- 
pending upon  its  condition,  and  he  often  uses  his  own 
discretion  in  grading.    With  his  helper  he  operates  all 
day  long,  and  if  the  superintendent  of  the  plant  does  not 
visit  him  regularly  every  two  or  three  hours  one  very 
important  part  of  the  manufacture  of  good  staves  is 
being  neglected.     Unless  the  jointer  is  a  reliable  and 
thoroughly  experienced  man,  he  should  be  watched  con- 
stantly and  coached  properly  in  the  work  and  the  grad- 
ing, as  it  lies  in  his  power  to  make  a  poor  grade  of  stock 
out  of  well-cut  staves  and  good  timber.     The  superin- 
tendent, foreman,  or  a  competent  jointer  should  inspect 
each  and  every  machine's  work  at  least  once  an  hour,  to 
determine  whether  the  men  operating  these  machines  are 
jointing  their  staves  properly,  and  at  the  same  time  are 
not  wasting  valuable  timber  by  cutting  off  an  unnecessar- 
ily heavy  listing.     These  listings   should  be  the  least 
amount  possible,  in  order  to  insure  a  perfect  joint,  and 
where  an  operator  is  using  an  extremely  dull  or  blunt 
knife  which  necessitates  two  or  more  cuts  before  a  good 
joint  is  secured,  the  waste  of  timber  is  enormous.     A 
careless  or  inefficient  jointer  can  easily  waste  more  tim- 
ber in  a  day's  work  than  his  wage  amounts  to.    Take  a 
slack  stave  jointer  with  a  capacity  of  10,000  staves  per 
day,  and  supposing  for  illustration  that  he  only  cuts 
off  just  KG  inch  more  than  is  necessary  on  each  joint 
(and  %  inch  is  often  wasted),  there  being  two  edges  to 


246  COOPERAGE 

each  stave,  would  make  %  inch  in  waste,  or  about  1,250 
inches  of  valuable  timber  being  sent  to  the  boiler  room 
each  day,  to  be  eventually  used  as  fuel.  This  would  be 
equal  to  a  little  over  300  staves  per  day,  and  on  the  basis 
of  what  might  be  termed  an  average  price  f.  o.  b.  mills, 
would  amount  to  something  like  $2.00  for  each  jointer. 
With  four  slack  stave  jointers  working,  which  is  about 
the  usual  crew,  the  loss  on  this  waste  of  only  M.6  inch 
would  amount  to  $7.00  or  $8.00  per  day.  But  supposing 
each  operator  cuts  off  %  inch  more  than  is  necessary  from 
each  edge  of  a  stave,  and  this  will  be  found  to  be  more 
probable  than  only  }{Q  inch,  it  would  make  this  one  item 
of  unnecessary  waste  amount  to  about  $16.00  each  day. 
This  is  worth  looking  after,  is  it  not!  Apparently  it 
would  pay  to  engage  a  competent  man,  or  one  upon 
whom  you  could  rely,  simply  to  watch  this  particular 
point,  in  an  endeavor  to  guard  against  such  unnecessary 
extravagance.  Some  manufacturers  make  the  serious 
mistake  of  telling  their  jointers  just  what  per  cent,  they 
want  the  stock  to  run,  and  demand  that  this  proportion 
shall  be  maintained.  If  the  jointer  happens  to  come  to 
a  part  of  a  rick  of  staves  which  was  manufactured  from 
an  unusually  poor  lot  of  timber,  the  results  would  be  very 
unsatisfactory  should  he  mechanically  adhere  to  the  in- 
structions given  him,  while  later,  when  the  stock  ran  bet- 
ter, he  would  be  wasting  good  timber.  Instances  have 
occurred  where  staves,  well  cut  and  made  of  excellent 
timber  have  been  ruined  in  the  grading  at  the  jointer's, 
causing  considerable  loss  to  the  manufacturer;  and, 
again,  manufacturers  in  their  eager  desire  to  forward 
material  or  to  get  it  on  the  market,  ship  stock  that  is 
wet  or  not  thoroughly  seasoned,  causing  considerable 
trouble  to  the  consumer.  This  is  a  serious  error,  and  the 
stave  manufacturer  would  have  done  better  had  he  pur- 
chased stock  at  a  loss,  rather  than  forward  his  own 
stock  in  poor  condition.  In  caring  for  the  jointing  ma- 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  247 

chine,  the  knife  should  be  kept  ground  thin  (Fig.  81,  as 
at  a),  with  a  long  bevel,  and  the  point  of  the  knife  in  the 
centre  kept  prominent  and  well  sharpened.  (Fig.  81, 
as  at  b.)  A  thick  and  naturally  round  point  on  the  knife 
is  the  primary  cause  of  failure  to  obtain  a  good,  clean 
joint  at  the  first  stroke,  and  particularly  is  this  so  with 
gum  or  soft  maple  timber.  The  point  of  most  makes  of 
knives  is  generally  2  inches  long,  and  should  the  knife 
be  ground  thick,  it  goes  through  the  stave  nearly  two 
inches  before  the  ends  of  the  knife  complete  the  cut.  This 
is  where  the  trouble  lies,  as  it  acts  as  a  wedge  and  splits 


FIG.  81.    JOINTER  KNIFE. 

out  the  wood  ahead  of  the  cut,  and  is  one  of  the  chief 
causes  of  poor  workmanship  and  considerable  waste  in 
stave  jointing.  This  round  or  thick  bevel  on  the  jointer 
knives,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  81,  is  caused 
by  the  knife  not  being  ground  often  enough.  Instead  of 
taking  the  knife  out  and  properly  grinding  it  on  the  grind- 
stone, they  merely  rub  it  up  with  a  file  and  then  whet  it ; 
of  course,  in  this  operation  the  extreme  point  is  taken 
off,  and  eventually  the  knife  becomes  thick  and  round 
and  loses  its  shape,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig. 
81.  Where  gum  staves  are  jointed,  it  has  been  found  that 
a  straight  knife  gives  better  satisfaction  than  the  pointed 
knife,  from  the  fact  that  it  does  not  break  out  the  ends 
of  the  staves,  but  the  knife  must  be  thinner  than  the  old 
style  and  the  bevel  kept  long  and  the  edge  sharp.  In 
adopting  this  style  of  knife,  the  leverage  on  the  treadle 


248  COOPERAGE 

shaft  will  have  to  be  changed,  as  this  straight  knife  is 
harder  to  force  through  the  wood,  but  with  this  adjusted 
properly  the  knife  goes  through  the  wood  just  as  easy 
as  the  old  style  jointing  knife.  To  keep  a  stave  jointer 
in  proper  condition  to  perform  good  work  requires  also 
that  the  sash  works  freely  in  the  slides,  with  no  play; 
that  the  chains  pull  evenly  on  each  end  of  the  sash;  that 
the  bearing  plate  be  placed  close  up  to  the  knife,  with  a 
square,  true  edge,  as  if  the  bearing  plate  is  allowed  to  be- 
come worn  round  on  the  edge  or  is  set  too  far  away  from 
the  knife,  it  will  not  make  a  smooth  joint,  and  especially 
is  this  true  where  dry  stock  is  jointed.  The  rests  should  be 
in  exact  alignment  in  order  to  produce  proper  and  equal 
bevel,  the  knife  set  ,so  as  to  make  the  bilge  exactly  in  the 
centre  of  the  stave,  and  the  quarter  exactly  the  same 
distance  from  each  end.  As  to  the  proper  bilge  and  quar- 
ter to  put  on  the  staves,  it  appears  that  manufacturers 
in  different  sections  of  the  country  vary  as  to  this  point. 
On  the  regular  30-inch  stave  for  sugar  products,  experi- 
ence has  proven  that  a  full  %-inch  bilge  joint  with  1%- 
inch  quarter  is  the  proper  thing;  this  means  that  when 
two  'staves  are  held  together  on  the  joint,  that  the  joint 
will  hold  tight  from  the  ends  of  the  stave  up  to  a  point 
7V2  inches  from  the  ends.  That  is  the  proper  joint  for 
the  modern  machine  shops,  as  the  sugar  refiners  require 
a  large  barrel,  and  with  a  shorter  quarter  the  packages 
do  not  head  up  well  in  the  machines,  or  by  hand  labor 
for  that  matter.  On  28%-inch  flour  barrel  staves,  opin- 
ion seems  to  vary,  but  on  tests  made  a  %-inch  bilge  joint 
with  a  9-inch  quarter  seemed  to  produce  the  best  results, 
and  as  figures  show  that  three-fourths  of  all  the  flour 
barrels  made  are  manufactured  with  %-inch  bilge  joint, 
this  should  be  considered  standard.  As  to  style  of  joint, 
whether  it  should  be  square  or  bevel,  from  past  experi- 
ence the  bevel  joint  has  easily  proven  the  best. 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  249 

In  order  that  the  term  "  quarter "  be  fully  understood, 
it  may  be  well  to  state  that  the  original  practice  in  mak- 
ing staves  that  developed  this  term  "  quarter "  was  to 
have  the  stave  joint  run  straight  from  the  end  back  to 
a  point  one-quarter  of  the  length  of  the  stave,  then  the 
bilge  raised  from  that  point  gradually  to  the  centre  and 
then  return  to  the  other  quarter  on  the  opposite  end. 
Now,  in  the  case  of  a  30-inch  sugar  barrel  stave,  this 
rule  works  to  perfection.  As  stated  before,  a  7%-ineli 


FIG.  82.     STAVE  PACKER  OR  BUNDLING  MACHINE. 

quarter  has  been  found  to  give  the  best  satisfaction,  and 
30  inches  divided  by  four  equal  parts  gives  you  7%  inches, 
which  is  one-quarter  .the  length  of  the  stave ;  hence  the 
term  " quarter. "  In  the  case  of  flour  barrel  or  28%-inch 
staves,  it  has  been  found  that  a  9-inch  quarter  gives  the 
best  results.  Naturally,  therefore,  nine  inches  from  the 
end  of  a  28%-inch  stave  would  not  be  the  quarter,  but 
coopers  making  this  class  of  barrel  prefer  the  bilge  to 
start  at  a  point  nine  inches  from  the  ends  of  the  stave, 
which  is  called  the  quarter  point.  Different  lengths  of 
staves,  naturally,  should  have  a  different  quarter,  and 
care  should  be  exercised  in  changing  from  one  size  to 
another  that  the  proper  quarter  is  observed. 


250  COOPERAGE 

STAVE  BUNDLING  OB  PACKING 

For  the  packing  of  staves  into  bundles  subsequent  to 
shipment,  the  stave  press  is  used.  There  are  several  dif- 
ferent types  of  these  on  the  market,  and  they  all  work  on 
about  the  same  principle.  The  one  illustrated  in  Fig.  82 
appears  to  be  as  good  as  any,  and  where  used  has  given 
entire  satisfaction.  In  the  use  of  this  machine  the  staves 
should  be  packed  alternately  wide  and  narrow  ones,  and 
so  arranged  that  each  and  every  bundle  will  contain  as 
nearly  200  inches  as  possible ;  this  is  figured  as  50  staves 
averaging  4  inches  per  stave  to  each  bundle,  and  is  the 
standard  method  of  packing. 

INSPECTION 

This  matter  of  inspection  is  the  one  important  link  in 
slack  stave  manufacture  which  should  be  given  much 
more  attention  than  the  average  mill  has  applied  to  it. 
Herein  lies  the  usefulness,  reliability  and  quality  of  the 
barrel  eventually  manufactured  from  it,  and  the  future 
success  of  the  trade  is  more  or  less  dependent  upon  this 
one  point.  A  manufacturer  uses  very  poor  judgment 
when  he  will  permit  stock  to  leave  his  factory  that  is  not 
up  to  the  grade  at  which  he  has  sold  it.  The  one  thing, 
undoubtedly,  that  contributes  more  to  a  mill  turning  out 
poor  stock  than  any  other  is  lack  of  properly  trained  and 
skilled  labor,  and  more  particularly  so  in  the  matter  of 
inspection,  and  it  is  an  economic  necessity,  both  to  the 
manufacturer  and  to  the  consumer,  that  effective  steps 
be  taken  to  secure  better  quality  in  material.  This  grad- 
ing of  material  is  supposed  to  be  carefully  done  by  a 
process  of  inspection  and  selection  at  the  jointer's,  and 
instead  of  having  a  boy  perform  this  work,  as  is  often 
the  case  in  the  majority  of  mills,  a  competent  man  should 
be  engaged — one  that  is  thoroughly  conversant  with  the 
business  and  the  proper  grading  of  staves.  This  may 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTUEE  251 

appear  somewhat  more  expensive  at  first  glance,  but  in 
the  long  run  will  prove  much  more  economical.  Eight 
at  this  point  is  where  the  greatest  care  and  attention  is 
required,  as  this  man,  or  sometimes  boy,  is  expected  to 
stamp  the  value  or  grade  of  each  stave,  as,  for  instance, 
"No.  1,"  "meal  barrel,"  or  "No.  2,"  and  can  easily  in 
the  course  of  a  day's  work  throw  away  more  than  his 
weekly  wage  by  improper  inspection.  Material  which  is 
not  good  enough  for  No.  1  stock  can  still  be  of  service 
in  a  lower  grade,  but  if  staves  of  a  lower  grade  happen 
to  be  included  in  a  bundle  of  No.  1  grade,  serious  injury 
results.  A  few  bad  staves  which  have  crept  into  the  bun- 
dles first  opened  by  the  purchaser  cause  him  to  engage 
either  in  a  long  examination  of  every  bundle,  or  more 
usually  to  assume  that  the  imperfections  run  all  through, 
and  to  demand  adjustment  and  rebates  accordingly,  or  to 
reject  the  shipment  altogether.  One  of  the  most  vex- 
atious matters  in  grading  cooperage  stock,  and  one 
which  has  caused  considerable  difficulty  and  loss,  is 
the  fact  that  some  consumers  require  and  demand 
standard  quality,  while  others  do  not  and  are  not  so 
particular.  Staves  that  ordinarily  will  pass  inspec- 
tion and  be  accepted  as  No.  1  stock  in  one  locality 
will  be  questioned  and  probably  rejected  in  another. 
It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  there  are  consumers 
who  use  and  accept  what  they  consider  a  No.  1  stave, 
although  it  is  not  up  to  the  specifications  of  the  National 
Association  or  the  general  average  of  No.  1  stock  as  man- 
ufactured. About  the  only  remedy  for  this  difficulty 
would  be  not  to  joint  out  and  inspect  stock  until  one  is 
fairly  positive  as  to  which  locality  shipment  is  intended, 
for  if  one  man  is  satisfied  with  a  lower  grade  others 
should  not  be  expected  to  accept  the  same.  The  National 
Association  rules  and  specifications  on  the  proper  grad- 
ing of  staves  are  intelligently  and  plainly  set  forth.  The 


252  COOPEEAGE 

difficulty  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  party  who  actually  does 
the  grading  and  sorting  has  probably  never  seen  these 
rules  and  is  working  solely  upon  instructions  as  handed 
him  from  the  foreman,  who  also  may  never  have  given 
them  any  study  or  attention  and  relies  solely  upon  his 
ideas  as  to  what  constitutes  a  No.  1,  meal  barrel,  or  No. 
2  stave.  These  rules  and  specifications  as  adopted  by 
the  Association  should  be  thoroughly  committed  to  mem- 
ory by  each  and  every  employee  in  and  about  a  stave 
mill,  and  the  manager  or  superintendent  should  see  to 
it  that  they  are  supplied  with  a  copy  of  same,  and  advised 
promptly  of  any  changes  or  alterations.  It  pays  im- 
mensely to  educate  your  employees  in  the  proper  fulfil- 
ment of  their  duties,  and  employees  in  a  stave  mill  can- 
not work  intelligently  unless  kept  posted  in  the  Associa- 
tion's doings  in  regard  to  proper  grading. 

STANDAKD  SPECIFICATIONS  AND  GKADES 

The  standard  specifications  and  grades,  as  acted  upon 
and  adopted  by  the  National  Slack  Cooperage  Manufac- 
turers' Association  as  regards  the  proper  grading  of 
slack  barrel  staves,  follows: 

Elm  staves  28%  inches  and  longer  shall  be  five  staves 
to  1%  inches  in  thickness. 

Elm  staves  24  inches  and  shorter  shall  be  six  staves 
to  2  inches  in  thickness. 

Gum,  cottonwood,  and  basswood  staves  28%  inches  and 
longer  shall  be  five  staves  to  11%6  inches  in  thickness. 

Gum,  cottonwood,  and  basswood  staves  24  inches  and 
shorter  shall  be  six  staves  to  2  inches  in  thickness. 

Hardwood  staves,  oak,  beech,  and  maple  28%  inches 
and  longer  shall  be  cut  six  staves  to  2%  inches  in  thick- 
ness. 

Hardwood  staves,  oak,  beech,  and  maple  24  inches  and 
shorter  shall  be  cut  six  staves  to  2  inches  in  thickness. 


SLACK  STAVE  MANUFACTURE  253 

No.  1  staves  shall  be  cut  full  thickness,  uniform 
throughout,  free  from  knots,  slanting  shakes,  dozy  wood, 
badly  stained  with  black  and  blue  mildew,  or  any  other 
defects  that  make  the  stave  unfit  for  use  in  an  A  No.  1 
barrel. 

Meal  barrel  staves  shall  be  free  from  slanting  shakes 
over  1%  inches  long,  knot  holes,  and  unsound  knots  (but 
sound  knots  not  over  %  inch  in  diameter  shall  be  allowed), 
and  shall  consist  of  good,  sound,  workable  staves. 

Mill-run  staves  shall  consist  of  the  run  of  the  knife, 
made  from  regular  run  of  stave  logs,  all  dead  culls  thrown 
out. 

No.  2  staves  shall  be  free  from  dead  culls. 

Standard  bilge,  unless  otherwise  understood,  shall  be 
%  inch  on  all  staves  up  to  and  including  28%  inches  in 
length,  and  %-inch  bilge  on  staves  30  inches  in  length. 

Standard  quarter  shall  be  9  inches  for  flour  barrel 
stock  and  7%  inches  for  sugar  barrel. 

No.  1  staves  shall  not  be  less  than  2%  inches  nor  exceed 
5%  inches  across  the  bilge. 

Unless  otherwise  specified,  all  staves  shall  be  thor- 
oughly dried. 

All  barrel  staves  to  be  well  seasoned  when  jointed  and 
to  average  in  measurement,  after  being  jointed,  4  inches 
per  stave,  or  4,000  inches  per  1,000  staves. 

Half-barrel  staves  23  inches,  23%  inches,  or  24  inches 
to  average  in  measurement  when  jointed  3%  inches  to  the 
stave,  or  175  inches  to  the  bundle  of  50  staves. 

Keg  staves  to  measure  160  inches  to  the  bundle  of  50 
staves. 

All  staves  to  be  measured  across  the  bilge. 

SPECIAL  STOCK 

White  ash  staves  shall  be  cut  five  staves  to  2%  inches 
in  thickness  and  be  graded  same  as  elm. 


254  COOPEEAGE 

Mill-run  apple  barrel  staves  shall  be  cut  six  staves  to 
2  inches  in  thickness,  and  shall  consist  of  the  run  of  the 
mill  from  regular  run  of  stave  logs,  all  dead  culls  thrown 
out. 

Cement  barrel  and  all  other  staves  not  specifically  men- 
tioned should  be  sold  according  to  the  local  custom,  or 
by  special  agreement.  Same  will  apply  as  well  to  the 
bilge  of  these  staves. 

All  stock  not  specifically  mentioned  should  be  bought 
and  sold  on  terms  and  specifications  agreed  upon  between 
the  buyer  and  seller. 

When  staves  shall  be  specified  to  be  made  of  a  certain 
kind  or  kinds  of  timber,  in  any  deal  or  contract,  any  tim- 
ber other  than  that  specified,  if  found  mixed  in  with  the 
timber  specified,  shall  be  classified  as  off-grade. 

DEAD   CULL   STAVES 

Dead  cull  staves  are  staves  containing  knot  holes  of 
over  %  inch  in  diameter;  staves  with  coarse  knots  or 
badly  cross-grained  near  quarter,  that  prevents  staves 
being  tressed  in  barrels;  staves  under  %  inch  thick; 
staves  with  bad  slanting  shakes  exceeding  6  inches  in 
length,  or  with  rot  that  impairs  strength. 

The  above  specifications  do  not  touch  upon  the  sub- 
ject of  wormholes,  but  where  two  or  more  wormholes  are 
together  in  the  bilge  of  a  stave,  this  stave  will,  eight  times 
out  of  ten,  crack  or  break  at  that  point ;  other  than  that, 
they  are  no  disadvantage  to  a  30-inch  stave  when  used 
for  a  sugar  barrel,  as  these  barrels  are  lined  with  paper, 
which  would  prevent  sifting  through  such  small  holes; 
but  in  the  case  of  28%-inch  flour  barrel  staves,  where 
these  wormholes  go  clear  through  the  stave,  it  should  not 
be  classed  as  a  No.  1  stave,  and  a  limit  should  be  placed 
on  the  percentage  of  stock  allowable  containing  such 
holes,  where  staves  are  to  be  used  for  sugar. 


SECTION   IX 


SLACK  HEADING 
MANUFACTURE 


SLACK  HEADING  MANUFACTURE 


GENERAL   REMARKS 

IN  the  report  of  the  United  States  Forest  Service  on 
the  production  of  slack  barrel  heading  for  the  year  1908, 
which  will  be  found  in  detail  in  Section  VI,  these  figures 
indicate  that  pine  ranks  first  among  the  woods  chiefly 
used,  followed  by  gum,  beech,  maple,  and  basswood,  in 
the  order  of  their  importance.  These  five  different  kinds 
of  wood  furnish  nearly  two-thirds  of  all  the  heading  man- 
ufactured. One  noticeable  feature  in  connection  with  this 
report  is  the  rapid  rise  in  favor  of  both  red  and  tupelo 
gum  as  a  heading  wood,  and  confirms  the  impression  had 
in  mind  the  past  few  years  that  this  species  is  destined 
to  be  the  chief  wood  used  in  the  future  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  this  article.  The  chief  and  most  discouraging 
problem  experienced  in  the  past  with  gum  wood  has  been 
caused  by  the  inexperience  of  manufacturers  in  the  sea- 
soning and  kiln-drying  of  this  particular  species  of  wood. 
But  this  problem  now  seems  to  have  been  solved  with 
satisfaction,  as  little  difficulty  appears  from  this  source. 
In  one  of  the  experiments  of  the  Forest  Service  in  this 
line,  heading  was  dried  in  from  six  to  seven  days,  direct 
from  the  saw.  It  probably  takes  from  one  to  two  weeks 
in  practice,  depending  on  the  construction  of  the  kiln  and 
the  methods  used  in  drying.  Different  makes  of  kilns 
probably  require  varying  lengths  of  time  in  drying. 

BOLTING  OUT 

In  the  getting  out  of  heading  bolts,  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  Section  VIII,  Slack  Stave  Manufacture,  where, 
under  the  following  heads,  Bolting  Eoom,  Cut-Off  Saw, 


258  COOPERAGE 

Drag-Saw,  Drop-Feed  Circular  Saw,  The  Bolting  Saw, 
and  Stave  and  Heading  Bolts,  the  preparation  of  same 
is  thoroughly  explained.  Heading  bolts,  when  properly 
prepared,  do  not  require  equalizing  before  being  sawn 
into  heading  pieces  or  blanks,  as  a  slight  difference  in 
their  length  one  way  or  another  does  not  affect  the  head 
before  being  turned  or  circled.  But  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  bolts  are  not  cut  too  long,  as  this  creates  a  waste 
of  timber  which  can  easily  be  avoided,  as  one  inch  leeway 
between  the  finished  size  of  the  head  and  the  rough  head- 
ing blank  is  generally  considered  sufficient  by  careful 
heading  manufacturers,  and  if  the  blanks  are  properly 
centred  in  the  heading  turner  by  the  operator,  it  will  be 
found  to  be  quite  enough. 

THE   HEADING   SAW 

When  the  heading  bolt  has  been  properly  prepared  it 
is  taken  to  the  heading  saw,  or,  as  styled  by  some  of  the 
trade,  an  upright,  pendulous-swing  saw  (Fig.  83).  This 
saw  should  be  as  large  in  diameter  as  the  machine  will 
allow,  in  order  to  secure  the  extra  rim  travel,  which  in- 
sures ease  in  cutting  and  admits  of  increased  capacity. 
Kind  of  timber  regulates  the  gauge  of  saw  and  number 
of  teeth  it  should  have.  It  would  be  impracticable  to 
attempt  to  run  a  60-inch  saw,  20  gauge  on  the  rim,  in 
gum,  ash,  sycamore,  or  cottonwood,  but  perfectly  so  in 
white  pine  or  cypress.  Where  beech,  maple,  and  like 
hardwoods  are  sawn,  a  50-inch  saw  with  86  teeth,  15  gauge 
at  the  rim  and  6  gauge  at  eye  or  mandrel  hole,  running 
1,500  revolutions  per  minute,  has  been  found  to  give  best 
results.  By  not  having  too  many  teeth,  you  can  secure 
more  clearance  for  the  sawdust,  which  will  prevent  the 
saw  from  running  in  and  out  of  the  timber  when  crowded, 
and  it  is  also  much  easier  for  the  man  that  operates  the 
saw.  And,  again,  too  much  speed  will  cause  the  machine 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        259 

to  vibrate  more  or  less,  no  matter  how  firm  the  founda- 
tion may  be;   therefore,   1,500  revolutions  per  minute 


FIG.  83.    PENDULOUS  SWING  HEADING  SAW. 

should  be  the  maximum  at  which  a  heading  saw  should 
be  run,  and  an  endeavor  made  to  maintain  it  at  that  speed. 
The  heavier  the  gauge  of  the  saw,  the  more  power  is  re- 


260  COOPERAGE 

quired  to  drive  it  and  maintain  it  at  its  proper  speed, 
and  there  is  also  a  waste  of  timber,  as  it  takes  out  a  much 
larger  saw  kerf.  Where  gum,  cottonwood,  and  woods  of 
]ike  nature  are  sawn,  it  has  been  found  that  a  50-inch  saw 
with  64  teeth,  15  gauge  on  the  rim,  10  gauge  at  eye  or 
mandrel  hole,  and  maintained  at  a  speed  of  1,500  revo- 
lutions per  minute  has  given  excellent  results.  A  good 
sawyer  with  this  saw  properly  fitted  should  saw  out 
16,000  pieces  of  gum  heading  averaging  10  inches  wide 
in  10  hours'  work.  In  fitting  heading  saws,  it  must  be 
kept  in  mind  that  they  are  subject  to  the  same  treat- 
ment as  other  saws  receive,  and  must  be  kept  in  order 
by  the  same  process.  They  will  need  to  be  taken  off 
the  collar  frequently  and  hammered.  No  one  who  is 
not  a  careful  man  or  who  has  not  a  fair  and  clear  knowl- 
edge of  saw-fitting  should  attempt  to  put  one  of  these 
saws  in  order,  as  they  are  straight  on  one  side  and  bev- 
elled outside  the  collar  on  the  other,  which  makes  them 
very  difficult  to  get  straight.  Besides,  the  extra  weight 
in  the  centre  makes  it  almost  impossible  to  determine 
the  amount  of  tension  you  have.  It  is  best  where  one 
has  not  a  full  knowledge  of  saw-fitting,  to  only  attempt 
to  straighten  them.  This  can  be  easily  done  by  remov- 
ing the  collar  and  placing  the  saw  on  the  end  of  a  wooden 
block,  which  should  be  slightly  oval,  and  by  light  blows 
smooth  up  the  rim  and  true  the  plate,  using  the  straight- 
edge on  the  straight  side  of  saw  only,  leaving  it  slightly 
hollow  on  face  side.  This  work  will  not  expand  the  saw 
and  will  invariably  put  it  in  good  condition,  or  enable 
the  saw  to  be  used  until  it  can  be  hammered  properly. 
On  account  of  the  position  of  the  grain  of  timber  to  be 
sawn,  the  pitch  of  the  teeth  should  be  much  greater  than 
on  the  bolting  saw.  In  fitting  the  teeth  of  this  saw  it 
has  been  found  that  a  spring- set  for  gum  and  cotton- 
wood  and  a  half  swage  for  beech,  maple,  and  like  hard- 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        261 

woods  has  given  the  best  results.  Cottonwood  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  woods  to  saw,  and  when  working 
on  this  class  of  timber  the  points  of  the  saw  tooth  should 
be  almost  needle  points  and  the  teeth  given  full  set.  The 
bottom  of  the  swing  carriage  on  this  machine  should 
be  adjustable,  so  as  to  raise  or  lower  it  quickly  when 
occasion  requires  it,  in  order  to  bring  the  centre  of  the 
block  on  a  line  with  the  centre  of  the  saw,  as  a  short 
block  will  be  jerked  into  the  saw,  with  the  probable  dan- 
ger of  buckling  it,  while  an  extra  long  block  will  be  very 
hard  to  feed  if  not  placed  in  the  centre;  but  very  few 
of  these  machines  have  this  adjustment.  In  setting  the 


FIG.  84.    HORIZONTAL  HAND-FEED  HEADING  SAW. 

gauge  for  thickness,  place  a  long  straightedge  across 
the  face  of  the  saw  and  set  the  gauge  to  it,  letting  the 
dish  in  the  saw  provide  the  lead.  About  %  inch  lead 
is  considered  ample  for  hardwoods;  for  softwoods  a 
little  less  may  be  used.  Leave  the  gauge  set  to  thick- 
ness; continually  moving  the  gauge  one  way,  then  an- 
other, will  not  insure  even  thickness  heading.  No  one 
can  make  good  lumber  by  using  the  guide  to  regulate 
the  saw,  nor  can  you  saw  good  heading  by  manipulat- 


262  COOPERAGE 

ing  the  gauge.  If  the  saw  runs  unevenly  something  is 
wrong,  and  the  filer  or  saw-fitter  should  remedy  the 
trouble.  But  if  the  saw  is  kept  straight  and  true,  the 
teeth  all  made  of  equal  length,  the  saw  gullets  kept 
round,  with  just  enough  set  to  clear  the  blade  of  the  saw, 
every  tooth  filed  square  across  on  face  and  bevelled  on 
back,  with  plenty  of  hook,  there  should  be  no  difficulty 
and  it  will  run  equal  to  any  self-feed  machine. 

THE    HORIZONTAL    HAND-FEED    HEADING    SAW 

The  horizontal  hand-feed  heading  saw,  as  illustrated 
in  Figs.  84  and  84%,  is  sometimes  used,  and  the  saw 


FIG.  84£.    HORIZONTAL  HAND-FEED  HEADING  SAW. 

requires  the  same  treatment  as  the  upright  heading 
saws,  except  this  one  point:  The  saw,  by  the  nature  of 
its  position,  is  affected  by  gravity,  as  it  expands  by  cen- 
trifugal force.  It  is  also  acted  upon  by  the  attraction 
of  gravitation  and  the  rim  of  the  saw  is  drawn  down, 


SLACK  HEADING   MANUFACTURE        263 

and  in  this  shape  has  the  appearance  of  an  inverted  sau- 
cer; and  as  the  block  is  fed  into  the  saw,  it  strikes  a 
point  on  the  saw  generally  opposite  the  collar  and  causes 
the  carriage  to  rise  against  the  upper  guides,  making  it 
hard  to  feed  and  also  causes  the  saw  to  run  down  and 
make  thin-edged  heading.  To  avoid  this,  remove  the 
saw  from  the  collar  and  hammer  it  on  the  straight  side 
until  it  is  fully  Me  inch  lower  in  the  centre ;  it  will  then 
not  fall  at  the  rim  below  the  level  and  will  perform  better 
work.  This  is  especially  necessary  where  high-speed 
power  feed  machines  are  used.  It  has  also  been  found 
beneficial  to  carry  a  trifle  more  set  on  the  upper  side 
of  these  saws,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to  hold  the  rim  up 
while  in  the  cut  and  does  not  wear  off  the  swage  of  the 
teeth  as  the  block  is  drawn  back.  Special  care  should 
be  given  the  mandrel  on  these  machines,  all  end  play 
should  be  taken  out  and  it  should  be  kept  plumb  and 
level ;  the  flywheel  and  pulley  should  be  in  good  running 
balance.  Use  as  large  a  belt  as  the  pulley  will  take,  mak- 
ing it  endless,  and  set  the  machine  a  good  distance  from 
the  driving  shaft.  This  will  allow  the  use  of  a  slack 
belt,  which  is  always  desirable,  as  it  takes  considerable 
strain  from  the  bearings. 


SEASONING 

WHAT  SEASONING  IS 

SEASONING  is  ordinarily  understood  to  mean  drying. 
When  exposed  to  the  sun  and  air,  the  water  in  green 
wood  rapidly  evaporates.  The  rate  of  evaporation  will 
depend  on  the  kind  of  wood,  the  shape  of  the  timber,  and 
the  condition  under  which  the  wood  is  placed  or  piled. 
Pieces  of  wood  completely  surrounded  by  air,  exposed 
to  the  wind  and  the  sun,  and  protected  by  a  roof  from 


264  COOPEBAGE 

rain  and  snow  will  dry  out  very  rapidly,  while  wood 
piled  or  packed  close  together  so  as  to  exclude  the  air, 
or  left  in  the  shade  and  exposed  to  rain  and  snow,  will 
probably  dry  out  very  slowly  and  will  be  subject  to 
mould  and  decay.  But  seasoning  implies  other  changes 
besides  the  evaporation  of  water.  Although  we  have  as 
yet  only  a  vague  conception  as  to  the  exact  nature  of  the 
difference  between  seasoned  and  unseasoned  wood,  it  is 
very  probable  that  one  of  these  consists  in  changes  in 
the  albuminous  substances  in  the  wood  fibres,  and  pos- 
sibly also  in  the  tannins,  resins,  and  other  incrusting 
substances.  Whether  the  change  in  these  substances  is 
merely  a  drying  out,  or  whether  it  consists  in  a  partial 
decomposition  is  as  yet  undetermined.  That  the  change 
during  the  seasoning  process  is  a  profound  one  there  can 
be  no  doubt,  because  experience  has  shown  again  and 
again  that  seasoned  wood  fibre  is  very  much  more  per- 
meable both  for  liquids  and  gases  than  the  living,  unsea- 
soned fibre.  One  can  picture  the  albuminous  substance 
as  forming  a  coating  which  dries  out  and  possibly  dis- 
integrates when  the  wood  dries.  The  drying  out  may 
result  in  considerable  shrinkage,  which  may  make  the 
wood  fibre  more  porous.  It  is  also  possible  that  there 
are  oxidizing  influences  at  work  within  these  substances 
which  result  in  their  disintegration.  Whatever  the  ex- 
act nature  of  the  changes  may  be,  one  can  say  without 
hesitation  that  exposure  to  the  wind  and  air  brings  about 
changes  in  the  wood,  which  are  of  such  a  nature  that  the 
wood  becomes  drier  and  more  permeable.  When  sea- 
soned by  exposure  to  live  steam,  similar  changes  may 
take  place;  the  water  leaves  the  wood  in  the  form  of 
steam,  while  the  organic  compounds  in  the  walls  prob- 
ably coagulate  or  disintegrate  under  the  high  temper- 
ature. The  most  effective  seasoning  is  without  doubt 
that  obtained  by  the  uniform,  slow  drying  which  takes 


SLACK  HEADING   MANUFACTURE        265 

place  in  properly  constructed  piles  outdoors,  under  ex- 
posure to  the  winds  and  the  sun  and  under  cover  from 
the  rain  and  snow,  and  is  what  has  been  termed  "  air- 
seasoning.  "  By  air-seasoning  oak  and  similar  hard- 
woods, nature  performs  certain  functions  that  cannot 
be  duplicated  by  any  artificial  means.  Because  of  this, 
woods  of  this  class  cannot  be  successfully  kiln-dried 
green  from  the  saw.  In  drying  wood,  the  free  water 
within  the  cells  passes  through  the  cell  walls  until  the 
cells  are  empty,  while  the  cell  walls  remain  saturated. 
When  all  the  free  water  has  been  removed,  the  cell  walls 
begin  to  yield  up  their  moisture.  Heat  raises  the  absorp- 
tive power  of  the  fibres  and  so  aids  the  passage  of  water 
from  the  interior  of  the  cells.  A  confusion  in  the  use  of 
the  word  "sap"  is  to  be  found  in  many  discussions  of 
kiln-drying;  in  some  instances  it  means  water,  in  other 
cases  it  is  applied  to  the  organic  substances  held  in  a 
water  solution  in  the  cell  cavities.  The  term  is  best  con- 
fined to  the  organic  substances  from  the  living  cell. 
These  substances,  for  the  most  part  of  the  nature  of 
sugar,  have  a  strong  attraction  for  water  and  water 
vapor,  and  so  retard  drying  and  absorb  moisture  into 
dried  wood.  High  temperatures,  especially  those  pro- 
duced by  live  steam,  appear  to  destroy  these  organic 
compounds  and  therefore  both  to  retard  and  to  limit 
the  reabsorption  of  moisture  when  the  wood  is  subse- 
quently exposed  to  the  atmosphere.  Air-dried  wood, 
under  ordinary  atmospheric  temperatures,  retains  from 
10  to  20  per  cent,  of  moisture,  whereas  kiln-dried  wood 
may  have  no  more  than  5  per  cent,  as  it  comes  from  the 
kiln.  The  exact  figures  for  a  given  species  depend  in 
the  first  case  upon  the  weather  conditions,  and  in  the 
second  case  upon  the  temperature  in  the  kiln  and  the 
time  during  which  the  wood  is  exposed  to  it.  When  wood 
that  has  been  kiln-dried  is  allowed  to  stand  in  the  open, 


266  COOPERAGE 

it  apparently  ceases  to  reabsorb  moisture  from  the  air 
before  its  moisture  content  equals. that  of  wood  which 
has  merely  been  air-dried  in  the  same  place  and  under 
the  same  conditions. 

MANNER  OF  EVAPORATION  OF  WATER 

The  evaporation  of  water  from  wood  takes  place 
largely  through  the  ends,  i.  e.,  in  the  direction  of  the 
longitudinal  axis  of  the  wood  fibres.  The  evaporation 
from  the  other  surfaces  takes  place  very  slowly  out  of 
doors,  and  with  greater  rapidity  in  a  dry  kiln.  The 
rate  of  evaporation  differs  both  with  the  kind  of  timber 
and  its  shape.  Slack  barrel  staves  and  heading  dry 
faster  than  tight  barrel  stock,  from  the  fact  that  they 
are  much  thinner.  Sapwood  dries  faster  than  heart- 
wood,  and  pine  more  rapidly  than  oak  or  other  hard- 
woods. Tests  made  show  little  difference  in  the  rate  of 
evaporation  in  sawn  and  hewn  stock,  the  results,  how- 
ever, not  being  conclusive.  Air-drying  out  of  doors 
takes  from  two  months  to  a  year,  the  time  depending  on 
the  kind  of  timber  and  the  climate.  After  wood  has 
reached  an  air-dry  condition  it  absorbs  water  in  small 
quantities  after  a  rain  or  during  damp  weather,  much 
of  which  is  immediately  lost  again  when  a  few  warm, 
dry  days  follow.  In  this  way  wood  exposed  to  the 
weather  will  continue  to  absorb  water  and  lose  it  for 
indefinite  periods.  When  soaked  in  water,  seasoned 
wood  absorbs  water  rapidly.  This  at  first  enters  into 
the  wood  through  the  cell  walls ;  when  these  are  soaked, 
the  water  will  fill  the  cell  lumen,  so  that  if  constantly 
submerged  the  wood  may  become  completely  filled  with 
water.  The  following  figures  show  the  gain  in  weight 
by  absorption  of  several  coniferous  woods,  air-dry  at 
the  start,  expressed  in  per  cent,  of  the  kiln-dry  weight : 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        267 


ABSORPTION   OF   WATER  BY   DRY   WOOD 


White  Pine 

Red  Cedar 

Hemlock 

Tamarack 

Air  dried 

108 

109 

111 

108 

Kiln-dried 

100 

100 

100 

100 

In  water  1  day 

135 

120 

133 

129 

In  water  2  days  
In  water  3  days  

147 
154 

126 
132 

144 
149 

136 
142 

In  water  4  days  

162 

137 

154 

147 

In  water  5  days  

165 

140 

158 

150 

In  water  7  days  

176 

143 

164 

156 

In  water  9  days  
In  water  11  days  
In  water  14  days  .   .... 

179 

184' 
187 

147 
149 
150 

168 
173 
176 

157 
159 
159 

In  water  17  days  

192 

152 

176 

161 

In  water  25  days  

198 

155 

180 

161 

In  water  80  days.  . 

207 

158 

186 

166 

DISTRIBUTION    OF    WATEK    IN    WOOD 

As  seasoning  means  essentially  the  more  or  less  rapid 
evaporation  of  water  from  wood,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
discuss  at  the  very  outset  where  water  is  found  in  wood 
and  its  local  and  seasonal  distribution  in  a  tree.  Water 
may  occur  in  wood  in  three  conditions:  (1)  It  forms  the 
greater  part  (over  90  per  cent.)  of  the  protoplasmic  con- 
tents of  the  living  cells;  (2)  it  saturates  the  walls  of  all 
cells,  and  (3)  it  entirely  or  at  least  partly  fills  the  cav- 
ities of  the  lifeless  cells,  fibres,  and  vessels.  In  the  sap- 
wood  of  pine  it  occurs  in  all  three  forms;  in  the  heart- 
wood  only  in  the  second  form  it  merely  saturates  the 
walls.  Of  100  pounds  of  water  associated  with  100 
pounds  of  dry  wood  substance  in  200  pounds  of  fresh 
sapwood  of  white  pine,  about  35  pounds  are  needed  to 
saturate  the  cell  walls,  less  than  5  pounds  are  contained 
in  living  cells,'  and  the  remaining  60  pounds  partly  fill 
the  cavities  of  the  wood  fibres.  This  latter  forms  the 
sap  as  ordinarily  understood.  It  is  water  brought  from 
the  soil  containing  small  quantities  of  mineral  salts,  and 
in  certain  species  (maple,  birch,  etc.)  it  also  contains 


268  COOPERAGE 

at  certain  times  a  small  percentage  of  sugar  and  other 
organic  matter.  All  the  conifers  (pines,  cedars,  junipers, 
cypresses,  sequoias,  yews  and  spruces)  contain  resin. 
Both  resin  and  albumen,  as  they  exist  in  the  sap  of  woods, 
are  soluble  in  water;  and  both  harden  with  heat,  much 
the  same  as  the  white  of  an  egg,  which  is  almost  pure 
albumen.  These  organic  substances  are  the  dissolved 
reserve  food  stored  during  the  winter  in  the  pith  rays, 
etc.,  of  the  wood  and  bark;  generally  but  a  mere  trace 
of  them  is  to  be  found.  From  this  it  appears  that  the 
solids  contained  in  the  sap,  such  as  albumen,  gum,  sugar, 
resin,  etc.,  cannot  exercise  the  influence  on  the  strength 
of  the  wood  which  is  so  commonly  claimed  for  them. 
The  wood  next  to  the  bark  contains  the  most  water.  In 
the  species  which  do  not  form  heartwood  the  decrease 
toward  the  pith  is  gradual,  but  where  this  is  formed  the 
change  from  a  more  moist  to  a  drier  condition  is  usually 
quite  abrupt  at  the  sapwood  limit.  In  long-leaf  pine 
the  wood  of  the  outer  one  inch  of  a  disk  may  contain 
50  per  cent,  of  water;  that  of  the  next  or  second  inch, 
only  35  per  cent.,  and  that  of  the  heartwood  only  20  per 
cent.  In  such  a  tree  the  amount  of  water  in  any  one 
section  varies  with  the  amount  of  sapwood,  and  is  there- 
fore greater  for  the  upper  than  the  lower  cuts,  greater 
for  limbs  than  stems,  and  greatest  of  all  in  the  roots. 
Different  trees,  even  of  the  same  kind  and  from  the 
same  place,  differ  as  to  the  amount  of  water  they  con- 
tain. A  thrifty  tree  contains  more  water  than  a  stunted 
one,  and  a  young  tree  more  than  an  old  one,  while  the 
wood  of  all  trees  varies  in  its  moisture  relations  with 
the  season  of  the  year.  Contrary  to  the  general  belief, 
a  tree  contains  about  as  much  water  in  winter  as  in  sum- 
mer. The  fact  that  the  bark  peels  easily  in  the  spring 
depends  on  the  presence  of  incomplete,  soft  tissue  found 
between  wood  and  bark  during  the  season  and  has  little 


SLACK  HEADING   MANUFACTUEE        269 

to  do  with  the  total  amount  of  water  contained  in  the 
wood  of  the  stem.  Even  in  the  living  tree  a  flow  of  sap 
from  a  cut  occurs  only  in  certain  kinds  of  trees  and  under 
special  circumstances;  from  boards,  felled  timber,  etc., 
the  water  does  not  flow  out,  as  is  sometimes  believed,  but 
must  be  evaporated.  The  seeming  exceptions  to  this  rule 
are  mostly  referable  to  two  causes:  Clefts  or  "shakes" 
will  allow  water  contained  in  them  to  flow  out.  And 
water  is  forced  out  of  sound  wood,  if  very  sappy,  when- 
ever the  wood  is  warmed,  just  as  water  flows  from  green 
wood  when  put  in  the  stove. 

KAPIDITY    OF    EVAPORATION 

The  rapidity  with  which  water  is  evaporated,  that  is, 
the  rate  of  drying,  depends  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
piece  and  on  the  structure  of  the  wood.  An  inch  board 
dries  more  than  four  times  as  fast  as  a  4-inch  plank 
and  more  than  twenty  times  as  fast  as  a  10-inch  timber. 
White  pine  dries  faster  than  oak.  A  very  moist  piece 
of  pine  or  oak  will,  during  one  hour,  lose  more  than  four 
times  as  much  water  per  square  inch  from  the  cross- 
section,  but  only  one-half  as  much  from  the  tangential 
as  from  the  radial  section.  In  a  long  timber,  where  the 
ends  or  cross-sections  form  but  a  small  part  of  the  dry- 
ing surface,  this  difference  is  not  so  evident.  Neverthe- 
less, the  ends  dry  and  shrink  first,  and  being  opposed 
in  this  shrinkage  by  the  more  moist  adjoining  parts,  they 
check,  the  cracks  largely  disappearing  as  seasoning  pro- 
gresses. High  temperatures  are  very  effective  in  evap- 
orating the  water  from  wood,  no  matter  how  humid  the 
air,  and  a  fresh  piece  of  sapwood  may  lose  weight  in 
boiling  water,  and  can  be  dried  to  quite  an  extent  in  hot 
steam.  In  drying  chemicals  or  fabrics,  all  that  is  re- 
quired is  to  provide  heat  enough  to  vaporize  the  moisture 
and  circulation  enough  to  carry  off  the  vapor  thus  se- 


270  COOPERAGE 

cured,  and  the  quickest  and  most  convenient  means  to 
these  ends  may  be  used.  While  on  the  other  hand,  in 
drying  wood,  whether  in  the  form  of  standard  stock  or 
the  finished  product,  the  application  of  the  requisite  heat 
and  circulation  must  be  carefully  regulated  throughout 
the  entire  process  or  warping  and  checking  are  almost 
certain  to  result.  Moreover,  wood  of  different  shapes 
and  thicknesses  is  very  differently  affected  by  the  same 
treatment.  Finally,  the  tissues  composing  the  wood, 
which  vary  in  form  and  physical  properties  and  which 
cross  each  other  in  regular  directions,  exert  their  own 
peculiar  influence  upon  its  behavior  during  drying.  With 
our  native  woods,  for  instance,  summer-wood  and  spring- 
wood  show  distinct  tendencies  in  drying,  and  the  same 
is  true  in  a  less  degree  of  heartwood,  as  contrasted  with 
sapwood.  Or,  again,  pronounced  medullary  rays  further 
complicate  the  drying  problem. 

EFFECTS    OF    MOISTURE    ON    WOOD 

The  question  of  the  effect  of  moisture  upon  the 
strength  and  stiffness  of  wood  offers  a  wide  scope  for 
study,  and  authorities  differ  in  conclusions.  Two  au- 
thorities give  the  tensile  strength  in  pounds  per  square 
inch  for  white  oak  as  10,000  and  19,500,  respectively; 
for  spruce,  8,000  to  19,500,  and  other  species  in  similar 
startling  contrasts.  Wood,  we  are  told,  is  composed  of 
organic  products.  The  chief  material  is  cellulose,  and 
this  in  its  natural  state  in  the  living  plant  or  green  wood 
contains  from  25  to  35  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  moisture. 
The  moisture  renders  the  cellulose  substance  pliable. 
What  the  physical  action  of  the  water  is  upon  the  molec- 
ular structure  of  organic  material,  to  render  it  softer 
and  more  pliable,  is  largely  a  matter  of  conjecture.  The 
strength  of  a  wooden  block  depends  not  only  upon  its 
relative  freedom  from  imperfections,  such  as  knots. 


SLACK  HEADING   MANUFACTURE        271 

crookedness  of  grain,  decay,  wormholes  or  ring  shakes, 
but  also  upon  its  density,  upon  the  rate  at  which  it  grew, 
and  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  various  elements  which 
compose  it.  The  factors  affecting  the  strength  of  wood 
are  therefore  of  two  classes:  (1)  Those  inherent  in  the 
wood  itself  and  which  may  cause  differences  to  exist  be- 
tween two  pieces  from  the  same  species  of  wood  or  even 
between  the  two  ends  of  a  piece,  and  (2)  those  which  are 
foreign  to  the  wood,  such  as  moisture,  oils,  and  heat. 
Though  the  effect  of  moisture  is  generally  temporary, 
it  is  far  more  important  than  is  commonly  realized.  So 
great,  indeed,  is  the  effect  of  moisture  that  under  some 
conditions  it  outweighs  all  the  other  causes  which  affect 
strength,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  decided  imper- 
fections in  the  wood  itself.  In  the  Southern  States  it  is 
difficult  to  keep  green  timber  in  the  woods  or  in  piles 
for  any  length  of  time,  because  of  the  rapidity  with  which 
wood-destroying  fungi  attack  it.  This  is  particularly  so 
during  the  summer  season,  when  the  humidity  is  greatest. 

SHKINKAGE    OF    WOOD 

Since  in  all  our  woods,  cells  with  thick  walls  and  cells 
with  thin  walls  are  more  or  less  intermixed,  and  espe- 
cially as  the  spring-wood  and  summer-wood  nearly 
always  differ  from  each  other  in  this  respect,  strains 
and  tendencies  to  warp  are  always  active  when  wood 
dries  out,  because  the  summer-wood  shrinks  more  than 
the  spring-wood,  and  heavier  wood  in  general  shrinks 
more  than  light  wood  of  the  same  kind.  If  a  thin  piece 
of  wood  after  drying  is  placed  upon  a  moist  surface  the 
cells  on  the  under  side  take  up  moisture  and  swell  before 
the  upper  cells  receive  any  moisture.  This  causes  the 
under  side  of  the  piece  to  become  longer  than  the  upper 
side,  and  as  a  consequence  warping  occurs.  Soon,  how- 
ever, the  moisture  penetrates  to  all  the  cells  and  the  piece 


272  COOPERAGE 

straightens  out.  But  while  a  thin  board  of  pine  curves 
laterally  it  remains  quite  straight  lengthwise,  since  in 
this  direction  both  shrinkage  and  swelling  are  small.  If 
one  side  of  a  green  board  is  exposed  to  the  sun,  warp- 
ing is  produced  by  the  removal  of  water  and  consequent 
shrinkage  of  the  side  exposed.  As  already  stated,  wood 
loses  water  faster  from  the  end  than  from  the  longitudi- 
nal faces.  Hence  the  ends  shrink  at  a  different  rate  from 
the  interior  parts.  The  faster  the  drying  at  the  surface, 
the  greater  is  the  difference  in  the  moisture  of  the  differ- 
ent parts,  and  hence  the  greater  the  strains  and  conse- 
quently also  the  greater  amount  of  checking.  This  be- 
comes very  evident  when  freshly  cut  wood  is  placed  in  the 
sun,  and  still  more  when  put  in  a  hot  kiln.  'While  most  of 
these  smaller  checks  are  only  temporary,  closing  up 
again,  some  large  radial  checks  remain  and  even  grow 
larger  as  drying  progresses.  Their  cause  is  a  different 
one  and  will  presently  be  explained.  The  temporary  checks 
not  only  occur  at  the  ends,  but  are  developed  on  the  sides 
also,  only  to  a  much  smaller  degree.  They  become  espe- 
cially annoying  on  the  surface  of  thick  planks  of  hard- 
woods, and  also  on  peeled  logs  when  exposed  to  the  sun. 
So  far  we  have  considered  the  wood  as  if  made  up  only 
of  parallel  fibres  all  placed  longitudinally  in  the  log. 
This,  however,  is  not  the  case.  A  large  part  of  the  wood 
is  formed  by  the  medullary  or  pith  rays.  In  pine  over 
15,000  of  these  occur  on  a  square  inch  of  a  tangential  sec- 
tion, and  even  in  oak  the  very  large  rays,  which  are  read- 
ily visible  to  the  eye,  represent  scarcely  a  hundredth  part 
of  the  number  which  the  microscope  reveals,  as  the  cells 
of  these  rays  have  their  length  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  wood  fibres.  If  a  large  pith  ray  of  white 
oak  is  whittled  out  and  allowed  to  dry  it  is  found  to 
shrink  greatly  in  its  width,  while,  as  we  have  stated,  the 
fibres  to  which  the  ray  is  firmly  grown  in  the  wood  do 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        273 

not  shrink  in  the  same  direction.  Therefore,  in  the  wood, 
as  the  cells  of  the  pith  ray  dry  they  pull  on  the  longitudi- 
nal fibres  and  try  to  shorten  them,  and,  being  opposed 
by  the  rigidity  of  the  fibres,  the  pith  ray  is  greatly 
strained.  But  this  is  not  the  only  strain  it  has  to  bear. 
Since  the  fibres  shrink  as  much  again  as  the  pith  ray,  in 
this,  its  longitudinal  direction,  the  fibres  tend  to  shorten 
the  ray,  and  the  latter  in  opposing  this  prevents  the  for- 
mer from  shrinking  as  much  as  they  otherwise  would. 
Thus  the  structure  is  subjected  to  two  severe  strains  at 
right  angles  to  each  other,  and  herein  lies  the  greatest  dif- 
ficulty of  wood  seasoning,  for  whenever  the  wood  dries 
rapidly  these  fibres  have  not  the  chance  to  "give"  or 
accommodate  themselves,  and  hence  fibres  and  pith  rays 
separate  and  checks  result,  which,  whether  visible  or  not, 
are  detrimental  in  the  use  of  the  wood.  The  contraction 
of  the  pith  rays  parallel  to  the  length  of  "the  board  is 
probably  one  of  the  causes  of  the  small  amount  of  longi- 
tudinal shrinkage  which  has  been  observed  in  boards. 
The  smaller  shrinkage  of  the  pith  rays  along  the  radius 
of  the  log  (the  length  of  the  pith  ray)  opposing  the 
shrinkage  of  the  fibres  in  this  direction  becomes  one  of 
the  causes  of  the  second  great  troubles  in  wood  season- 
ing, namely,  the  difference  in  the  amount  of  the  shrink- 
age along  the  radius  and  that  along  the  rings  or  tangent. 
This  greater  tangential  shrinkage  appears  to  be  due  in 
part  to  the  causes  just  mentioned,  but  also  to  the  fact 
that  the  greatly  shrinking  bands  of  summer-wood  are 
interrupted  along  the  radius  by  as  many  bands  of  porous 
spring-wood,  while  they  are  continuous  in  the  tangential 
direction.  In  this  direction,  therefore,  each  such  band 
tends  to  shrink,  as  if  the  entire  piece  were  composed  of 
summer-wood,  and  since  the  summer-wood  represents  the 
greater  part  of  the  wood  substance,  this  greater  tendency 
of  tangential  shrinkage  prevails.  The  effect  of  this 


274  COOPEEAGE 

greater  tangential  shrinkage  affects  every  phase  of  wood- 
working.   It  leads  to  permanent  checks  and  causes  the 
log  to  split  open  on  drying.    Sawed  in  two,  the  flat  sides 
of  the  log  become  convex;  sawed  into  timber,  it  checks 
along  the  median  line  of  the  four  faces,  and  if  converted 
into  boards  the  latter  checks  considerably  from  the  end 
through  the  centre,  all  owing  to  the  greater  tangential 
shrinkage  of  the  wood.    Briefly,  then,  shrinkage  of  wood 
is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cell  walls  grow  thinner  on 
drying.    The  thicker  cell  walls  and  therefore  the  heavier 
wood  shrinks  most,  while  the  water  in  the  cell  cavities 
does  not  influence  the  volume  of  the  wood.     Owing  to 
the  great  difference  of  cells  in  shape,  size,  and  thickness 
of  walls,  and  still  more  in  their  arrangement,  shrinkage 
is  not  uniform  in  any  kind  of  wood.     This  irregularity 
produces  strains,  which  grow  with  the  difference  between 
adjoining  cells  and  are  greatest  at  the  pith  rays.    These 
strains  cause  warping  and  checking,  but  exist  even  where 
no  outward  signs  are  visible.     They  are  greater  if  the 
wood  is  dried  rapidly  than  if  dried  slowly,  but  can  never 
be  entirely  avoided.     Temporary  checks  are  caused  by 
the  more  rapid  drying  of  the  outer  parts  of  any  stick; 
permanent  checks  are  due  to  the  greater  shrinkage,  tan- 
gentially,  along  the  rings  than  along  the  radius.     This, 
too,  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the  ordinary  phenomena  of 
shrinkage,  such  as  the  difference  in  behavior  of  entire 
and  quartered  logs,  " bastard"  (tangent)  and  rift  (ra- 
dial) boards,  etc.,  and  explains  many  of  the  phenomena 
erroneously  attributed  to  the  influence  of  bark  or  of  the 
greater  shrinkage  of  outer  and  inner  parts  of  any  log. 
Once  dry,  wood  may  be  swelled  again  to  its  original  size 
by  soaking  in  water,  boiling,  or  steaming.    Soaked  pieces 
on  drying  shrink  again  as  before;  boiled  and  steamed 
pieces  do  the  same,  but  to  a  slightly  less  degree.    Neither 
hygroscopicity,  i.  e.,  the  capacity  of  taking  up  water,  nor 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        275 

shrinkage  of  wood  can  be  overcome  by  drying  at  tem- 
peratures below  200°  Fahr.  Higher  temperatures,  how- 
ever, reduce  these  qualities,  but  nothing  short  of  a  coal- 
ing heat  robs  wood  of  the  capacity  to  shrink  and  swell. 
Rapidly  dried  in  the  kiln,  the  wood  of  oak  and  other 
hardwoods  "caseharden";  that  is,  the  outer  part  dries 
and  shrinks  before  the  interior  has  a  chance  to  do  the 
same,  and  thus  forms  a  firm  shell  or  case  of  shrunken, 
commonly  checked  wood  around  the  interior.  This  shell 
does  not  prevent  the  interior  from  drying,  but  when  this 
drying  occurs  the  interior  is  commonly  checked  along  the 
medullary  rays,  commonly  called  "honey combing "  or 
hollow-horning.  In  practice  this  occurrence  can  be  pre- 
vented by  steaming  or  sweating  the  wood  in  the  kiln, 
and  still  better  by  drying  the  wood  in  fhe  open  air  or  in 
a  shed  before  placing  in  the  kiln.  Since  only  the  first 
shrinking  is  apt  to  check  the  wood,  any  kind  of  lumber 
which  has  once  been  air-dried  (three  to  six  months  for 
1-inch  stuff)  may  be  subjected  to  kiln  heat  without  any 
danger.  Kept  in  a  bent  or  warped  condition  during  the 
first  shrinkage,  the  wood  retains  the  shape  to  which  it 
has  been  bent  and  firmly  opposes  any  attempt  at  sub- 
sequent straightening.  Sapwood,  as  a  rule,  shrinks  more 
than  heartwood  of  the  same  weight,  but  very  heavy  heart- 
wood  may  shrink  more  than  lighter  sapwood.  The 
amount  of  water  in  wood  is  no  criterion  of  its  shrinkage, 
since  in  wet  wood  most  of  the  water  is  held  in  the  cav- 
ities, where  it  has  no  effect  on  the  volume.  The  wood  of 
pine,  spruce,  cypress,  etc.,  with  its  very  regular  struc- 
ture, dries  and  shrinks  evenly  and  suffers  much  less  in 
seasoning  than  the  wood  of  broad-leafed  trees.  Among 
the  latter,  oak  is  the  most  difficult  to  dry  without  injury. 
Desiccating  the  air  with  certain  chemicals  will  cause  the 
wood  to  dry,  but  wood  thus  dried  at  80°  Fahr.  will  still 
lose  water  in  the  kiln.  Wood  dried  at  120°  Fahr.  loses 


276  COOPERAGE 

water  still  if  dried  at  200°  Fahr.,  and  this  again  will  lose 
more  water  if  the  temperature  is  raised,  so  that  abso- 
lutely dry  wood  cannot  be  obtained,  and  chemical  destruc- 
tion sets  in  before  all  the  water  is  driven  off.  On  re- 
moval from  the  kiln,  the  wood  at  once  takes  up  water 
from  the  air,  even  in  the  driest  weather.  At  first  tne 
absorption  is  quite  rapid;  at  the  end  of  a  week  a  short 
piece  of  pine  1%  inches  thick  has  regained  two-thirds 
of,  and  in  a  few  months  all,  the  moisture  which  it  had 
when  air-dry,  8  to  10  per  cent,  and  also  its  former  dimen- 
sions. In  thin  boards  all  parts  soon  attain  the  same 
degree  of  dryness.  In  heavy  timbers  the  interior  re- 
mains moister  for  many  months,  and  even  years,  than 
the  exterior  parts.  Finally  an  equilibrium  is  reached, 
and  then  only  the  outer  parts  change  with  the  weather. 
With  kiln-dried  woods  all  parts  are  equally  dry, 
and  when  exposed  the  moisture  coming  from  the 
air  must  pass  in  through  the  outer  parts,  and  thus 
the  order  is  reversed.  Ordinary  timber  requires 
months  before  it  is  at  its  best.  Kiln-dried  timber, 
if  properly  handled,  is  prime  at  once.  Dry  wood 
when  soaked  in  water  soon  regains  its  original  vol- 
ume, and  in  the  heartwood  portion  it  may  even  sur- 
pass it;  that  is  to  say,  swell  to  a  larger  dimension  than 
it  had  when  green.  With  the  soaking  it  continues  to  in- 
crease in  weight,  the  cell  cavities  filling  with  water,  and 
if  left  many  months  all  pieces  sink.  Yet  after  a  year's 
immersion  a  piece  of  oak  2  by  2  inches  and  only  6  inches 
long  still  contains  air;  i.  e.,  it  has  not  taken  up  all  the 
water  it  can.  By  rafting  or  prolonged  immersion,  wood 
loses  some  of  its  weight,  soluble  materials  being  leached 
out,  but  it  is  not  impaired  either  as  fuel  or  as  building 
material.  Immersion,  and  still  more  boiling  and  steam- 
ing, reduce  the  hygroscopicity  of  wood  and  therefore 
also  the  troublesome  "working"  or  shrinking  and  swell- 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTUEE        277 

ing.  Exposure  in  dry  air  to  a  temperature  of  300°  Fahr. 
for  a  short  time  reduces  but  does  not  destroy  the  hygro- 
scopicity,  and  with  it  the  tendency  to  shrink  and  swell. 
A  piece  of  red  oak  which  has  been  subjected  to  a  tem- 
perature of  over  300°  Fahr.  still  swells  in  hot  water  and 
shrinks  in  the  kiln.  In  artificial  drying  temperatures 
of  from  150°  to  180°  Fahr.  are  usually  employed.  Pine, 
spruce,  cypress,  cedar,  etc.,  are  dried  fresh  from  the  saw, 
allowing  four  days  for  1-inch  stuff.  Hardwoods,  espe- 
cially oak,  ash,  maple,  birch,  sycamore,  etc.,  are  usually 
air-seasoned  for  three  to  six  months  to  allow  the  first 
shrinkage  to  take  place  more  gradually,  and  are  then  ex- 
posed to  the  above  temperatures  in  the  kiln  for  about 
six  to  ten  days  for  1-inch  stuff,  other  dimensions  in  pro- 
portion. Freshly  cut  poplar  and  cottonwood  are  often 
dried  direct  from  the  saw  in  a  kiln.  By  employing  lower 
temperatures,  100°  to  120°  Fahr.,  green  oak,  ash,  etc., 
can  be  seasoned  in  dry  kilns  without  danger  to  the  ma- 
terial. Steaming  and  sweating  the  lumber  is  sometimes 
resorted  to  in  order  to  prevent  checking  and  "case- 
hardening,"  but  not,  as  has  been  frequently  asserted,  to 
enable  the  wood  to  dry.  Air-dried  stock  is  not  dry,  and 
its  moisture  is  too  unevenly  distributed  to  insure  good 
behavior  after  manufacture.  Careful  piling  of  the  stock, 
both  in  the  yard  and  kiln,  is  essential  to  good  drying. 
Since  the  proportion  of  sap  and  heartwood  varies  with 
size,  age,  species,  and  individual,  the  following  figures 
must  be  regarded  as  mere  approximations: 

POUNDS  OF  WATER  LOST  IN  DRYING  100  POUNDS  OF  GREEN  WOOD 
IN  THE  KILN 


Sapwood  or 
outer  part 

Heartwood 
or  interior 

(1)  Pines   cedars  spruces  and  firs 

45-65 

16-25 

(2)  Cypress   extremely  variable 

50-65 

18-60 

(3)  Poplar   cottonwood   basswood 

60-65 

40-60 

(4)  Oak,  beech,  ash,  elm,  maple,  birch,  hickory,  chest- 
nut  walnut  and  sycamore  

40-50 

30-40 

The  lighter  kinds  have  the  most  water  in  the  eapwood,  thus  sycamore  has  more  than  hickory. 


278  COOPEEAGE 


DIFFICULTIES  OF  DRYING  WOOD 

Seasoning  and  kiln-drying  is  so  important  a  process  in 
the  manufacture  of  woods  that  a  need  is  keenly  felt  for 
fuller  information  regarding  it,  based  upon  scientific 
study  of  the  behavior  of  various  species  at  different  me- 
chanical temperatures  and  under  different  mechanical 
drying  processes.  The  special  precautions  necessary  to 
prevent  loss  of  strength  or  distortion  of  shape  render  the 
drying  of  wood  especially  difficult.  All  wood  when  under- 
going a  seasoning  process,  either  natural  (by  air)  or 
mechanical  (by  steam  or  heat  in  a  dry  kiln),  checks  or 
splits  more  or  less.  This  is  due  to  the  uneven  drying 
out  of  the  wood  and  the  consequent  strains  exerted  in 
opposite  directions  by  the  wood  fibres  in  shrinking.  This 
shrinkage,  it  has  been  proven,  takes  place  both  endwise 
and  across  the  grain  of  wood.  The  old  tradition  that 
wood  does  not  shrink  endwise  has  long  since  been  shat- 
tered, and  it  has  long  been  demonstrated  that  there  is 
an  endwise  shrinkage.  In  some  woods  it  is  very  light, 
while  in  others  it  is  easily  perceptible.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  average  end  shrinkage,  taking  all  the  woods,  is 
only  about  1%  per  cent.  This,  however,  probably  has 
relation  to  the  average  shrinkage  on  ordinary  lumber 
as  it  is  used  and  cut  and  dried.  Now,  if  we  depart  from 
this  and  take  veneer,  or  basket  stock,  or  even  stave  bolts 
where  they  are  boiled,  causing  swelling  both  endwise 
and  across  the  grain  or  in  dimension,  after  they  are 
thoroughly  dried  there  is  considerably  more  evidence  of 
end  shrinkage.  In  other  words,  a  slack  barrel  stave  of 
elm,  say,  28  or  30  inches  in  length,  after  being  boiled 
might  shrink  as  much  in  thoroughly  drying  out  as  com- 
pared to  its  length  when  freshly  cut  as  a  12-foot  elm 
board.  It  is  in  the  cutting  of  veneer  that  this  end  shrink- 
age becomes  most  readily  apparent.  In  trimming  with 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        279 

scoring  knives  it  is  done  to  exact  measure,  and  where 
stock  is  cut  to  fit  some  specific  place  there  has  been  ob- 
served a  shrinkage  on  some  of  the  softer  woods,  like 
cottonwood,  amounting  to  fully  %  of  an  inch  in  36  inches. 
And  at  times  where  the  drying  has  been  thorough  the 
writer  has  noted  a  shrinkage  of  %  of  an  inch  on  an  ordi- 
nary elm  cabbage-crate  strip  36  inches  long,  sawed  from 
the  log  without  boiling.  There  really  are  no  fixed  rules 
of  measurement  or  allowance,  however,  because  the  same 
piece  of  wood  may  vary  under  different  conditions ;  and, 
again,  the  grain  may  cross  a  little  or  wind  around  the 
tree,  and  this  of  itself  has  a  decided  effect  on  the  amount 
of  what  is  termed  "end  shrinkage."  There  is  more 
checking  in  the  wood  of  broad-leaf  trees  than  in  that  of 
coniferous  trees,  more  in  sapwood  than  in  heartwood, 
and  more  in  summer-wood  than  in  spring-wood.  Inas- 
much as  under  normal  conditions  of  weather,  water  evap- 
orates less  rapidly  during  early  seasoning  in  winter, 
wood  that  is  cut  in  the  autumn  and  early  winter  is  con- 
sidered less  subject  to  checking  than  that  which  is  cut 
in  spring  and  summer.  Rapid  seasoning,  except  after 
wood  has  been  thoroughly  soaked  or  steamed,  almost 
invariably  results  in  more  or  less  serious  checking,  j^.11 
hardwoods  which  check  or  warp  badly  during  season- 
ing should  be  reduced  to  the  smallest  practicable  size 
before  drying  to  avoid  the  injuries  involved  in  this 
process,  and  wood  once  seasoned  should  never  again  be 
exposed  to  the  weather,  since  all  injuries  due  to  season- 
ing are  thereby  aggravated.  Seasoning  increases  the 
strength  of  wood  in  every  respect,  and  it  is  therefore  of 
great  importance  to  protect  it  against  moisture. 

UNSOLVED  PKOBLEMS  IN  KILN-DBYING 

1.  Physical  data  of  the  properties  of  wood  in  relation 
to  heat  are  meagre. 


280  COOPERAGE 

2.  Figures  on  the  specific  heat  of  wood  are  not  readily 
available,  though  upon  this  rests  not  only  the  exact  opera- 
tion of  heating  coils  for  kilns,  but  the  theory  of  kiln-dry- 
ing as  a  whole. 

3.  Great  divergence  is  shown  in  the  results  of  experi- 
ments in  the  conductivity  of  wood.    It  remains  to  be  seen 
whether  the  known  variation  of  conductivity  with  moist- 
ure content  will  reduce  these  results  to  uniformity. 

4.  The  maximum  or  highest  temperature  to  which  the 
different  species  of  wood  may  be  exposed  without  serious 
loss  of  strength  has  not  yet  been  determined. 

5.  The  optimum  or  absolute  correct  temperature  for 
drying'the  different  species  of  wood  is  as  yet  entirely  un- 
settled. 

6.  The  inter-relation  between  wood  and  water  is  as 
imperfectly  known  to  dry-kiln  operators  as  that  between 
wood  and  heat. 

7.  What  moisture  conditions  obtain  in  a  stick  of  air- 
dried  wood? 

8.  How  is  the  moisture  distinguished? 

9.  What  is  its  form! 

10.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  peculiar  surface  con- 
ditions which  even  in  the  air-dried  wood  appear  to  indi- 
cate incipient  case-hardening? 

These  questions  can  be  answered  thus  far  only  by 
speculation  or,  at  best,  on  the  basis  of  incomplete  data. 
Until  these  problems  are  solved,  kiln-drying  must  neces- 
sarily remain  without  the  guidance  of  complete  scientific 
theory. 

KILN-DKYING 

Drying  is  an  essential  part  of  the  preparation  of  wood 
for  manufacture.  For  a  long  time  the  only  drying  process 
used  or  known  was  air-drying,  or  the  exposure  of  wood  to 
the  gradual  drying  influences  of  the  open  air,  and  is  what 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        281 

has  now  been  termed  preliminary  seasoning.  This 
method  is  without  doubt  the  most  successful  and  effective 
seasoning,  because  nature  performs  certain  functions 
in  air-drying  that  cannot  be  duplicated  by  artificial 
means.  Because  of  this,  hardwoods,  as  a  rule,  cannot 
be  successfully  kiln-dried  green  or  direct  from  the  saw. 
Kiln-drying,  which  is  an  artificial  method,  originated  in 
the  effort  to  improve  or  shorten  the  process  by  subject- 
ing the  wood  to  a  high  temperature  or  to  a  draught  of 
heated  air  in  a  confined  space  or  kiln.  In  so  doing,  time 
is  saved  and  a  certain  degree  of  control  over  the  drying 
condition  is  secured.  With  softwoods  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  kiln-dry  direct  from  the  saw  or  knife.  This 
procedure,  however,  is  ill  adapted  for  hardwoods,  in 
which  it  would  produce  such  checking  and  warping  as 
would  greatly  reduce  the  value  of  the  product.  There- 
fore, hardwoods,  as  a  rule,  are  more  or  less  thoroughly 
air-dried  before  being  placed  in  the  dry-kiln,  where  the 
residue  of  moisture  may  be  reduced  to  within  three  and 
four  per  cent.,  which  is  much  lower  than  is  possible  by 
air-drying  only.  It  is  probable  that  for  the  sake  of  econ- 
omy, air-drying  will  be  eliminated  in  the  drying  process 
of  the  future  without  loss  to  the  quality  of  the  product. 
The  kiln-drying  of  staves  and  heading  is  one  of  the  most 
important  items  in  the  manufacture  of  cooperage,  and 
to  do  it  properly  requires  constant  care  and  attention. 
Where  staves  are  kiln-dried,  they  should  be  piled  in  the 
kiln  or  on  the  trucks  lengthwise,  allowing  the  ends  only 
to  lap,  and  this  should  be  the  least  amount  possible.  By 
this  method  it  reduces  the  quantity  of  staves  per  truck, 
but  facilitates  drying,  as  they  dry  faster,  more  uniformly, 
and  with  better  results.  By  cross-piling,  the  staves  be- 
come flat  and  lose  their  proper  circle.  As  to  the  time 
required  in  drying  staves,  this  depends  on  three  things : 
the  species  of  wood  to  be  dried,  the  condition  of  the 


282  COOPERAGE 

staves  when  they  enter  the  kiln,  and  the  intensity  of  the 
drying  process.  This  generally  varies  from  three  or 
four  days  to  about  two  weeks;  probably  a  safe  average 
would  be  one  week  on  stock  that  is  comparatively  easy 
to  dry,  or  that  has  been  well  steamed  before  cutting. 
It  is  well,  where  staves  are  kiln-dried  direct  from  the 
knife,  to  get  them  into  the  kiln  while  they  are  still  warm 
from  the  steaming,  as  they  are  then  in  good  condition 
for  kiln-drying,  as  the  fibres  of  the  wood  are  soft  and 
the  pores  open,  which  will  allow  of  forcing  the  evapora- 
tion of  moisture. 

It  is  the  practice  among  slack  stock  manufacturers 
to  abide  by  the  decision  or  judgment  of  their  fore- 
men as  to  when  the  stock  in  the  dry-kilns  is  sufficiently 
dry,  and  this  decision  is  generally  based  entirely  on 
observation.  This  practice  is  no  doubt  a  good  one, 
providing  the  party  thus  deciding  is  well  versed  in  the 
drying  subject  and  has  had  considerable  experience  in 
the  matter;  but  there  are  a  great  many  who  have  not 
this  knowledge  or  experience  and  who  have  never  made 
a  study  of  this  subject,  and  who  operate  their  dry-kilns 
in  a  haphazard  sort  of  way,  either  by  subjecting  all  their 
stock  to  a  given  number  of  days,  regardless  of  the  con- 
dition of  same  when  entering  the  drying  room,  or  else 
entirely  by  their  own  judgment,  which,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  is  found  to  be  unsatisfactory.  System  is  as 
indispensable  in  this  operation  as  at  any  other  point  in 
manufacture,  and  one  should  be  guided  somewhat  by 
figures,  indicating  "about"  the  proper  weight  of  the 
stock  when  leaving  the  kiln.  This  in  itself  will  not  guar- 
antee properly  dried  stock,  but  will  cause  investigations 
to  be  made,  and  will  materially  assist  those  upon  whom 
this  responsibility  rests.  It  is  quite  a  difficult  matter  to 
give  specific  or  "absolutely  correct"  weights  of  slack 
staves  when  thoroughly  or  properly  dried  in  order  that 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        283 

one  may  be  positively  guided  in  these  kiln  operations, 
as  a  great  deal  depends  upon  the  species  of  wood  to  be 
dried,  its  density,  and  upon  the  thickness  which  it  has 
been  cut.  Elm  will  naturally  weigh  less  than  beech,  and 
where  the  wood  is  close-grained  or  compact  it  will  weigh 
more  than  coarse-grained  wood  of  the  same  species.  But 
from  numerous  experiments  and  investigations  made  at 
one  of  the  largest  slack  barrel  plants  in  this  country,  it 
has  been  found  that  when  No.  1  30-inch  staves  cut  from 
the  different  species  of  wood  and  of  the  thicknesses  as 
shown  in  the  table  below  conform  to  the  weights  as  speci- 
fied that  they  are  entirely  satisfactory,  and  that  for 
guidance  in  this  matter  can  be  safely  relied  upon. 

Beech,  maple,  etc.,  cut  6  staves  to  2%  inches  should 
weigh  about  940  pounds  and  not  exceed  1,040  pounds  per 
1,000  staves. 

Gum,  cottonwood,  etc.,  cut  5  staves  to  I15/it  inches 
should  weigh  about  880  pounds  and  n6t  exceed  980  pounds 
per  1,000  staves. 

Elm  cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches  should  weigh  about  800 
pounds  and  not  exceed  900  pounds  per  1,000  staves. 
Other  sizes  in  proportion. 

In  the  kiln-drying  of  heading  blanks  considerable  im- 
portance attaches  to  the  piling  on  trucks  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  avoid  moulding,  warping  or  checking,  and  this 
is  especially  so  with  gum.  To  obviate  the  first  difficulty, 
a  space  of  not  less  than  six  or  eight  inches  should  be 
left  between  the  ricks.  The  uneven  lapping  of  the  head- 
ing blanks  either  at  the  ends  or  sides  is  sure  to  cause 
warping,  and  the  general  preference  is  given  to  cross- 
sticks  rather  than  interlocking  the  heading  blanks.  These 
cross-sticks  should  be  not  more  than  1%  inches  wide  by 
about  %  or  1  inch  in  thickness,  and  when  used  have  a 
tendency  to  prevent  warping;  whereas,  if  the  heading 
blanks  are  simply  interlocked,  any  tendency  of  some  one 


284  COOPERAGE 

piece  to  warp  or  twist  may  communicate  itself  to  another, 
but  where  the  cross-sticks  are  used  they  will  exert  a  re- 
straining influence.  The  heading  blanks  of  the  upper 
layer,  being  subjected  to  the  greatest  amount  of  heat 
and  ordinarily  without  weight  to  hold  them  in  shape, 
should  have  planks  or  some  device  superimposed  to  put 
the  upper  course  under  conditions  similar  to  those  lower 
in  the  pile;  otherwise  these  topmost  layers  will  warp. 
As  to  the  time  required  for  drying  heading  blanks,  this 
also  depends  on  the  species  of  timber,  condition  when 
entering  kiln,  and  the  intensity  of  the  drying  method. 
No  set  rules  can  be  laid  down,  as  good  judgment  only 
should  be  used,  as  the  quality  of  the  drying  is  not  purely 
one  of  time.  Sometimes  the  comparatively  slow  process 
gives  excellent  results,  while  to  rush  a  lot  of  stock 
through  may  be  to  turn  it  out  so  poorly  seasoned  that 
it  will  not  give  satisfaction  when  worked.  The  mistreat- 
ment of  the  material  in  this  respect  results  in  numerous 
defects,  chief  among  which  are  warping  and  twisting, 
checking,  case-hardening,  and  honeycombing,  or,  as  some- 
times called,  hollow-horning.  Many  woods,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, tupelo  and  red  gum,  will  warp  and  twist  in  dry- 
ing unless  special  care  is  taken.  This  difficulty  is  not 
alone  confined  to  kiln-drying,  but  is  quite  as  great  in  air- 
seasoning.  In  fact,  drying  in  the  open  with  exposure  to 
the  sun  often  develops  the  worst  examples,  especially  so 
with  the  top  layers  of  each  pile.  If  the  kiln-drying  is 
too  rapid  the  stock  may  open  up  at  the  ends,  which  is 
termed  checking.  Frequently  checks  which  appear  after 
kiln-drying  were  originally  formed  during  previous  air- 
drying  and  are  merely  reopened  in  the  kiln.  These  may 
readily  be  distinguished  from  fresh  checks  formed  in 
the  kiln,  since  their  inner  surfaces  have  been  filled  with 
dust  and  darkened  by  the  weather.  Case-hardening 
occurs  when  the  kiln-drying  is  pushed  too  rapidly  with- 


SLACK  HEADING   MANUFACTURE        285 

out  proper  precaution;  the  surface  of  the  wood  becomes 
dry  and  impervious,  while  the  interior  remains  almost 
as  moist  as  before,  and  thorough  drying  is  thus  quite 
preventjed,  and  an  effort  to  secure  it  produces  honey- 
combing or  hollow-horning.  Honeycombing  can  occur 
only  together  with  case-hardening.  It  is,  in  effect,  in- 
ternal checking  in  which  the  checks,  following  the  med- 
ullary rays,  may  run  nearly  from  end  to  end  of  the  piece, 
but  do  not  except  in  extreme  cases  show  upon  the  sur- 
face. In  piling  heading  blanks  on  the  yard  for  air-season- 
ing, care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  piles  or  ricks  well 
clear  of  the  ground.  At  least  eight  inches  should  be  the 
minimum,  in  order  to  allow  of  good  air  circulation.  There 
are  different  methods  of  piling:  some  pile  in  large,  hol- 
low, circular  piles;  others  use  smaller  ones,  while  some 
pile  in  long,  hollow,  rectangular  or  square  piles.  Either 
method  will  bring  good  results  if  care  is  taken  that  the 
heading  blanks  are  not  given  too  much  lap  and  the  ricks 
kept  well  separated.  The  least  amount  of  lap  gives  the 
best  results.  The  long,  hollow,  rectangular  or  square 
piles  are  the  most  acceptable  form  of  piling,  from  the 
fact  that  more  space  can  be  utilized  and  the  foundations 
more  easily  laid.  The  piles  or  ricks  can  then  be  bound 
together,  and  the  whole  becomes  a  stanch  and  rigid  mass. 


THE   HEADING  ROOM 

HEADING   PLANEE 

THE  heading  blanks  being  thoroughly  air-dried  or  kiln- 
dried,  as  the  case  may  be,  are  then  brought  to  the  head- 
ing room  for  finishing  and  turning.  Where  heading 
pieces  have  been  kiln-dried,  they  should  at  all  times  be 
left  standing  under  cover,  subject  to  the  atmosphere  for 


286  COOPERAGE 

at  least  48  hours  before  turning  to  size,  in  order  that  the 
timber  may  become  thoroughly  acclimated,  as  this  will 
materially  lessen  the  possibility  of  the  finished  heading 
swelling  beyond  size  while  en  route  to  destination,  or  if 
kept  in  storage  for  future  use.  When  heading  pieces 
that  have  been  thoroughly  kiln-dried  are  taken  direct 
to  the  jointer  from  the  dry-kilns,  they  are  generally  drier 
than  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  and  after  being  jointed 
and  circled  they  immediately  begin  to  absorb  this  moist- 
ure, and  naturally  will  do  so  through  the  ends.  This 
causes  the  ends  of  the  pieces  to  swell,  and  the  original 
joint  is  altered  or  lost,  making  heading  joint  "much 
more  open  in  centre"  than  is  desired,  while  if  the  head- 
ing pieces  were  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  acclimated 
before  jointing  or  turning  this  would  not  occur.  And, 
again,  if  the  heading  pieces  are  taken  to  jointer  before 
they  are  properly  or  thoroughly  dried,  they  naturally 
contain  more  moisture  than  the  surrounding  atmosphere, 
and  immediately  begin  to  throw  off  this  excessive  moist- 
ure, with  the  result  that  the  heading  joint  is  again  altered 
or  lost.  But  these  conditions  being  the  reverse  to  the 
former,  the  joint  becomes  open  on  the  ends,  and  the 
finished  head  is  eventually  much  smaller  than  originally 
intended.  Considerable  care  should  be  given  to  this  point 
in  heading  manufacture,  as  this  is  one  of  the  chief  causes 
of  difficulty  with  finished  heading,  and  has  been  the  means 
of  considerable  expense  and  anxiety  both  to  the  consumer 
and  the  manufacturer.  Considering  that  the  heading 
pieces  have  been  properly  dried  and  then  thoroughly  ac- 
climated, they  are  then  taken  to  the  heading  planer, 
Fig.  85.  These  surface  planers  accommodate  two  knives 
24  inches  long  on  the  cylinder  and  should  be  run  at  4,500 
revolutions  per  minute.  Considerable  care  should  be 
taken  in  grinding  that  these  knives  are  kept  evenly  bal- 
anced as  regards  one  another,  and  also  each  knife  should 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        287 

be  evenly  balanced  in  relation  to  itself ;  that  is,  it  should 
be  of  same  weight  at  one  end  as  at  the  other.  This  can 
be  easily  determined  by  the  use  of  a  knife-balancing 
scales,  as  shown  in  Fig.  39% ;  for,  should  these  knives  be 
out  of  balance,  the  knife  cylinder  running  at  such  speed 
would  cause  them  to  jump  and  rattle,  putting  consider- 
able strain  on  the  machine,  and  particularly  on  the  cylin- 


FIG.  85.    HEADING  PLANER. 

der  bearings,  which  in  time  would  wear  them  oblong, 
causing  the  knife  cylinder  to  rise  or  jump  up  and  down 
while  in  motion,  giving  the  finished  head,  or  the  stuff 
planed,  a  rough,  wavy  surface.  Particular  attention 
should  also  be  given  that  the  knives  have  the  proper 
bevel,  so  that  while  revolving  the  heel  of  the  knife  will 
clear  the  material  being  planed,  keeping  the  cutting  edge 
prominent.  A  good  rule  to  observe  in  this  respect  is  to 
always  make  the  bevel  of  the  knife  a  trifle  less  than  twice 


288  COOPERAGE 

its  thickness,  and  this  rule  will  apply  in  all  cases  where 
knives  are  used.  A  great  many  operators,  when  these 
planer  knives  get  dull,  instead  of  taking  them  off  the 
machine  and  grinding  them  properly,  merely  use  a  hand 
file,  and  after  one  or  two  applications  of  this  method  of 
sharpening  the  beveljs  round,  does  not  clear  the  material, 
and  turns  out  very  unsatisfactory  work,  at  the  same  time 


FIG.  86.    HEADING  JOINTER. 

subjecting  the  machine  to  unnecessary  strains.  This 
surface  planer  should  be  set  about  8  or  10  feet  from 
and  on  the  right  hand  side  of  the  heading  jointer.  A 
table  should  then  be  built  the  same  height  and  width  of 
the  discharge  end  of  the  planer  and  attached  thereto, 
leading  toward  the  jointer,  so  that  the  heading  pieces 
when  planed  are  fed  directly  to  the  operator  on  the 
jointer.  This  method  insures  capacity,  as  a  good  oper- 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        289 

ator  on  the  heading  jointer  should  easily  in  this  man- 
ner joint  as  many  heading  pieces  as  can  be  put  through 
the  planer. 

THE    HEADING    JOINTER 

Next  in  order  in  the  process  of  manufacture  is  the 
heading  jointer.  (Fig.  86.)  Experience  has  proven  that 
a  5-foot  wheel  jointer  running  at  a  speed  of  650  revolu- 
tions per  minute  is  easily  the  best  for  this  purpose,  as 
with  a  jointer  of  this  class  the  knife,  which  is  21  inches 
long,  has  good  shearing  qualities  and  cuts  as  much  at 
the  point  of  the  knife  as  at  the  heel,  and,  consequently, 
wears  away  evenly  from  end  to  end  of  knife  edge.  In  a 
wheel  jointer  of  smaller  diameter,  the  heel  or  end  of  knife 
nearest  the  centre  of  the  wheel  has  to  do  much  more  cut- 
ting than  the  point  or  upper  end,  and  naturally  will  re- 
quire grinding  or  sharpening  more  often  to  insure  good 
joints.  Also,  it  has  been  found  that  an  operator  can  joint 
more  heading  pieces  with  less  labor  on  a  5-foot  wheel 
than  on  a  wheel  jointer  of  smaller  diameter,  from  the 
fact  that  the  larger  wheel  cuts  more  freely.  Some 
manufacturers  use  a  saw  jointer  for  this  purpose,  but 
while  these  saw  machines  turn  out  a  very  satisfactory 
joint,  they  are  not  to  be  compared  with  a  wheel  jointer 
for  speed  or  capacity,  as  an  experienced  operator  can 
easily  joint  from  3,500  to  4,000  sets  heading  in  a  day's 
work  of  ten  hours  on  the  wheel  jointers,  while  a  little 
more  than  half  of  this  amount  would  be  the  limit  on  a 
saw  jointer,  as  more  time  is  consumed  in  determining 
the  necessary  cut.  Where  hardwoods  or  timber  that  is 
more  or  less  cross-grained  is  being  worked,  smoother 
joints  and  much  better  results  can  be  obtained  by  using 
caps  on  the  knives  of  these  wheel  jointer's.  These  caps 
should  be  filed  to  same  gauge  as  the  jointer  knife  and 
about  Vw  inch  flat  on  the  under  side  where  it  lies  adjacent 


290  COOPERAGE 

to  the  cutting  edge  of  knife,  so  that  when  tightened  down 
it  will  have  a  good  bearing  surface  and  will  prevent  shav- 
ings from  getting  under  or  between  knife  and  cap.  These 
knives  and  caps  should  also  be  kept  well  balanced  in  rela- 
tion to  one  another.  It  is  always  a  good  rule  to  mark 
these  knives  and  caps  consecutively  from  1  to  6  with  a 
centre  punch,  that  is,  putting  one  mark  on  the  first  knife 
and  cap  and  marking  the  slot  or  opening  in  jointer  wheel 
the  same ;  two  marks  on  the  next,  three  on  the  third,  and 
so  on.  Then  these  knives  and  caps  which  have  the  same 
marks  should  always  travel  together  and  always  be  put 
in  opening  on  wheel  of  same  number.  For  instance,  knife 
and  cap  marked  4  should  be  put  in  slot  4  on  jointer  wheel, 
etc.  In  balancing,  these  knives  and  caps  should  be  of 
same  weight  as  knife  and  cap  directly  opposite  in  wheel ; 
for  instance,  knife  marked  1,  travelling  directly  oppo- 
site knife  4.  These  should  be  of  same  weight,  likewise 
knives  2  and  5,  and  knives  3  and  6.  By  balancing  in  this 
manner  it  insures  equal  weight  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
jointer,  and  the  wheel  will  run  smooth  and  true  when 
at  its  full  speed. 

In  grinding  or  sharpening  these  jointer  knives,  care 
must  be  exercised  that  they  are  all  ground  alike  or  of 
the  same  shape  on  the  cutting  edge.  For  this  purpose 
a  gauge  should  be  used,  one  made  of  steel  is  the  best, 
and  as  a  straight  joint  has  been  found  to  be  the  most 
desirable  for  slack  barrel  heading,  this  steel  gauge  should 
be  made  in  the  manner  of  a  straightedge,  and  each  and 
every  jointer  knife  ground  in  like  manner.  In  setting 
these  knives  in  the  jointing  wheel,  care  should  also  be 
taken  that  they  are  all  set  alike ;  that  is,  each  knife  must 
protrude  just  so  far  from  or  through  the  face  of  the 
wheel.  Quality  and  kind  of  timber  jointed  determine 
this  to  a  certain  extent,  but  where  hardwoods  are  jointed 
less  knife  is  desirable  than  if  the  timber  was  of  the  soft- 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        291 

wood  or  coniferous  species.  In  practice  it  will  be  found 
that  about  %2-inch  set  will  produce  the  better  results, 
and  for  this  purpose  a  small  gauge  should  also  be  made 
of  steel,  with  a  small  notch  filed  in  the  centre  to  the  de- 
sired depth,  so  tHat  in  setting  these  knives  the  heel  and 
toe  of  each  knife  is  brought  out  from  the  face  of  the 
wheel  to  the  depth  of  this  notch  in  the  gauge.  In  this 
manner  each  and  every  knife  will  be  set  alike.  It  is  also 
advisable  occasionally  to  stop  the  wheel  and  go  over  each 
knife  with  the  gauge  to  satisfy  one's  self  that  they  are 
properly  set  or  that  none  of  them  have  slipped,  which 
happens  quite  frequently. 

In  operation,  the  heading  piece  should  be  held  firmly 
up  to  the  face  of  the  wheel  and  not  allowed  to  chatter, 
as  this  produces  a  poor  joint;  and  in  feeding,  the  blank 
should  be  fed  evenly,  that  is,  there  should  be  the  same 
amount  of  pressure  applied  to  one  end  as  to  the  other 
and  an  effort  made  to  joint  "with  the  grain"  of  the  wood, 
otherwise  the  grain  may  be  crossed,  and  this  will  have  a 
tendency  to  cause  rough  joints.  And,  again,  if  the  oper- 
ator does  not  feed  the  heading  blank  evenly,  but  feeds 
it  to  the  wheel,  first  one  end  and  then  the  other  by  a  sort 
of  rocking  motion,  it  will  produce  a  joint  that  will  be 
high  in  the  centre  and  cause  the  joints  on  the  finished 
heads  to  be  open  on  the  ends,  sometimes  leaving  the  im- 
pression that  the  heading  blanks  were  not  *  sufficiently 
dry  and  that  they  had  shrunk  after  being  turned  to  size. 
Care  should  also  be  taken  that  too  much  timber  is  not 
wasted  by  unnecessary  jointing.  The  heading  blank 
should  not  be  held  up  to  the  face  of  the  wheel  too  long. 
It  is  a  good  plan  occasionally  to  take  about  50  or  75 
pieces  or  heading  blanks,  measure  them  carefully  across 
their  width,  allowing  sufficient  margin  for  jointing  prop- 
erly, and  then  without  the  knowledge  of  the  operator  on 
the  wheel  send  them  through  the  planer,  and  after  he  has 


292  COOPERAGE 

* 

jointed  them  measure  them  again,  and  you  may  be  sur- 
prised at  the  amount  of  timber  your  operator  at  the 
jointer  is  wasting.  The  operator  on  this  machine  should 
be  schooled  in  economy,  and  not  permitted  to  waste  un- 
necessarily timber  which  is  valuable  by  sending  it 
through  the  shaving  pipe  to  the  boiler  room  to  be  eventu- 
ally used  as  fuel. 

MATCHING  OB  ASSEMBLING 

After  the  heading  pieces  or  blanks  have  been  properly 
jointed  they  are  matched,  or  the  pieces  assembled  for 
the  size  head  to  be  turned.  Here  is  where  too  much  care 
and  attention  cannot  be  given,  as  a  careless  operator  at 
this  position  can  easily  and  without  much  exertion  cause 
more  waste  of  timber,  with  its  consequent  lessening  of 
profits,  in  one  day  than  the  total  value  of  his  wages  will 
amount  to  in  one  month.  As  stated  before,  all  econom- 
ical heading  manufacturers  consider  that  a  leeway  of 
one  inch  is  amply  sufficient,  considering  that  the  oper- 
ator at  the  heading  turner  properly  centres  the  heading 
pieces  ;*  and  any  heading  pieces  or  blanks  that  have  been 
assembled  or  matched  up  larger  than  this  amount,  the 
surplus  may  be  considered  as  a  wilful  waste  of  timber. 
This  point  can  be  easily  checked  up  by  a  careful  watch 
on  the  "bats"  or  waste  wood  sawn  from  each  head  that 
is  being  continually  wheeled  out  to  the  boiler  room. 
And,  again,  it  makes  quite  a  difference  which  way  these 
blanks  are  matched  up;  narrow  pieces  should  always  be 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  head  -and  the  wider  ones  on 
the  "cant,"  as  small,  narrow  cants  are  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  hold  in  the  bundle  and  also  more  or  less  difficult 
to  put  into  the  barrel.  And  then  where  one  of  these 
small  cants  happens  to  drop  out  of  the  bundle  before 
it  has  reached  the  cooper,  the  balance  of  the  head  is  use- 
less until  it  has  been  rematched.  It  is  generally  the 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        293 

rule  to  assemble  these  heading  pieces  in  piles  up  to  a 
convenient  height  on  a  bench  or  short  skid,  and  as  the 
operator  on  the  heading  turner  finishes  one  pile  the  next 
one  is  shoved  up  to  within  easy  reach. 

THE    HEADING    TURNER 

These  heading  turners  (Fig.  87)  are  designed  for  cir- 
cling all  sizes  of  heading  or  square-edge  covers,  and  are 


FIG.  87.    HEADING  TURNER. 


almost  automatic  in  their  operation.  Aside  from  placing 
the  heading  blanks  in  between  the  clamps,  all  that  is 
necessary  of  the  operator  is  to 'tread  upon  a  foot  lever, 
and  by  this  one  operation  the  heading  pieces  are  clamped, 
then  immediately  brought  in  contact  with  the  saw,  and 
the  machine  put  in  motion.  When  the  head  has  been 


294 


COOPERAGE 


turned  the  machine  throws  itself  out  of  gear,  discharges 
the  finished  head,  and  is  in  position  to  receive  another. 
The  operator,  having  no  need  to  touch  the  machine  with 
his  hands,  can  have  the  next  head  ready  to  drop  into 


FIG.  88.     SKETCH  SHOWING  METHOD  OF  DETERMINING  PROPER  CONCAVE  OB 
CIRCLE  OF  HEADING  SAWS. 

the  machine  the  moment  the  finished  one  has  been  dis- 
charged. The  speed  of  these  saws  should  be  5,000  revo- 
lutions per  minute,  and  the  machine  placed  about  6  or  8 
feet  from  the  matching  bench.  The  heads  should  be 
matched  in  piles  of  20  set  each  and  slid  along  a  small 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        295 

runway  or  skid  to  the  heading  turner.  These  heading 
turners  are  equipped  with  a  chamfering  saw,  i.  e.,  a  flat 
steel  cutter  head  of  varying  thickness,  which  turns  the 
outside  bevel  on  the  head,  and  a  small,  concaved,  circular 
saw.  These  concave  saws  are  made  right  and  left  hand. 
By  holding  the  saw  so  that  the  teeth  point  toward  you, 
if  the  saw  concaves  to  the  right  it  is  a  left-hand  saw,  and 
if  it  concaves  to  the  left  it  is  a  right-hand  saw.  These 
saws  are  also  made  to  concave  to  different  circles.  The 
size  of  the  head  to  be  turned  determines  the  circle  saw 
necessary  to  be  used  in  order  that  the  proper  bevel  may 
be  sawn  on  the  head  or  that  the  saw  will  not  bind  in 
the  cut,  which  will  cause  it  to  overheat  on  the  rim,  and 
the  unequal  expansion  will  invariably  result  in  the  saw 
cracking.  The  smaller  the  diameter  of  the  head  to  be 
turned,  a  relatively  smaller  circle  or  dish  of  the  concave 
saw  should  be  used.  This  can  best  be  explained  by  re- 
ferring to  Fig.  88,  where  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  the 
head  represents  a  segment  of  a  given  circle.  The  size 
of  this  circle  corresponds  to  the  dish  or  concave  that  is 
necessary  in  the  saw  in  order  properly  to  turn  the  size 
head  desired.  To  determine  this  circle,  it  is  necessary 
first  to  sketch  the  head,  as  shown,  or  one-half  of  it ;  then 
divide  it  equally  and  draw  a  vertical  line,  as  shown  at  A, 
representing  the  centre  of  the  head;  then  trace  on  the 
head  the  bevel  desired,  as  at  B,  and  inscribe  a  circle 
with  the  point  of  radius  on  the  vertical  line  as  at  C,  to 
correspond  to  the  bevel  as  already  drawn;  then  the  di- 
ameter of  this  circle  will  represent  the  proper  dish  or 
circle  saw  required  for  this  particular  size  head.  Of 
course,  the  same  circle  saw  can  be  used  for  different  size 
heads  where  the  variation  is  not  too  great,  but  it  is  not 
practicable  to  use  the  same  saw  where  the  variation  in 
size  is  greater  than  one  inch.  If  a  concave  saw  of  the 
proper  dish  or  circle  corresponding  with  the  diameter  of 


296  COOPEBAGE 

the  head  to  be  turned  is  used,  the  centre  line  of  the  saw 
arbor,  as  shown  from  D  to  E,  will  intersect  the  vertical 
line  A,  as  at  C.  This  vertical  line  represents  the  centre 
of  the  bearings  on  the  clamps  which  hold  the  head  while 
it  is  being  turned.  This  being  the  case,  the  blank  head 
will  swing  into  the  concave  saw  on  a  circle  concentric 
with  the  circle  of  the  saw,  and  therefore  will  not  bind 
either  on  the  inside  or  the  outside  of  the  saw,  the  set  of 
the  saw  teeth  giving  the  necessary  clearness.  If,  how- 
ever, the  centre  line  of  the  saw  arbor,  as  shown,  does  not 
intersect  the  vertical  axis  of  the  heading  clamp,  the  head 
will  bind,  causing  the  saw  to  heat  on  the  rim,  as  stated ; 
and  this  unnecessary  heating  will  cause  unequal  expan- 

TOP. 


FIG.  89.  PROPER  BEVEL  FOR  SLACK  HEADING. 

sion,  which,  in  its  turn,  will  invariably  result  in  the  saw 
cracking.  To  keep  these  concave  saws  in  order  so  that 
they  will  produce  satisfactory  results,  set  the  teeth  alike 
on  both  sides  of  the  plate.  To  do  this,  where  these  saws 
are  set  by  hand,  use  a  small  piece  of  steel  plate  filed  on 
one  edge,  concave,  so  that  it  will  fit  the  convex  side  of 
the  saw ;  the  other  edge  convex,  to  fit  the  concave  side  of 
the  saw.  Then  file  a  notch  on  each  side  to  the  prope*r 
depth,  and  spring  each  tooth  to  this  gauge.  As  these 
saws  are  called  upon  to  cut  with  the  grain  as  well  as 
across  the  grain,  they  require  less  bevel  on  the  teeth 
than  a  regular  cut-off  saw.  They  should  be,  therefore, 
filed  straight  across  in  front  and  bevelled  on  the  backs 


SLACK  HEADING   MANUFACTUKE        297 

of  the  teeth.  Keep  the  same  amount  of  hook  on  the 
front  of  eaeh  tooth  and  file  the  gullets  or  sawdust  cham- 
bers round  by  the  use  of  a  round-edge  file  or  emery  wheel, 
and  do  not  run  the  saw  when  dull,  as  it  is  much  easier  to 
keep  a  saw  in  shape  by  frequent  filing  than  it  would  be 
if  the  saw  was  kept  at  work  until  the  points  of  the  teeth 


FIG.  90.    HEADING  PRESS. 

were  rounded  and  the  shape  of  the  tooth  practically  lost. 
As  to  the  proper  bevel  for  a  slack  barrel  head,  Fig.  89 
shows  the  style  which  is  full  size,  that  has  been  considered 
as  correct  by  some  of  the  largest  consumers  of  heading 
in  this  country.  The  bevel  on  slack  heading  should  not 
be  made  too  sharp,  as  when  it  is  put  into  the  package 
il stiff"  it  has  a  tendency  to  cut  into  and  weaken  the 
chime.  And,  again,  should  the  bevel  be  made  too  blunt, 


298 


COOPERAGE 


it  does  not  enter  the  croze  properly,  and  the  head  is  liable 
to  fall  out  should  the  package  receive  a  sharp,  sudden 
jolt.  This  matter  of  bevel  is  quite  as  important  as  any 
other  point  in  heading  manufacture,  and  should  be  given 
its  proper  share  of  attention. 

BUNDLING    OR   PACKING 

After  the  heading  has  been  properly  turned  it  is 
packed  in  bundles  and  bound  with  wire  or  flat  steel 
bands.  This  bundling  is  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  the 
heading  packer,  as  shown  in  Fig.  90.  It  is  the  general 
custom  to  pack  these  heads  20  set  to  the  bundle,  but  it 
is  the  opinion  of  the  writer  and  others  that  a  standard 
of  15  set  per  bundle  would  be  much  more  satisfactory. 
With  this  number  in  each  bundle  and  the  bundles  bound 


FIG.  91.     VIEW  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  POOR  BUNDLING. 


SLACK   HEADING   MANUFACTURE        299 

with  three  wire  ties  of  11-gange  wire  would  produce  a 
package  more  acceptable  to  the  cooper,  and  one  that 
could  be  shipped  any  distance  without  the  contents  arriv- 
ing at  its  destination  resembling  a  carload  of  kindling 
wood,  as  shown  in  Fig.  91.  This  shipment  was  actually 
unloaded  by  the  writer,  and  is  only  one  of  many  which 
have  been  received  in  like  condition.  Twenty  set  to  a 
bundle  is  too  heavy  a  package  to  handle  economically 
and  with  any  satisfaction,  as  they  are  difficult  to  store 
and  equally  as  difficult  to  take  down  from  the  pile,  and 
fully  15  per  cent,  are  more  or  less  broken  or  in  bad  condi- 
tion before  they  are  in  the  hands  of  the  cooper.  And, 
again,  the  writer  has  observed  that  shipments  of  head- 
ing arrive  at  destination  in  much  better  condition  when 
the  bundles  are  piled  in  the  car  in  a  standing  position 
instead  of  being  laid  down,  as  shown  in  Fig.  91.  This 
is  another  point  that  will  bear  investigation. 

STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  AND  GRADES 

The  standard  specifications  and  grades,  as  acted  upon 
and  adopted  by  the  National  Slack  Cooperage  Manufac- 
turers' Association  as  regards  the  proper  grading  of 
slack  heading,  follows: 

No.  1  basswood,  cottonwood,  or  gum  heading  shall  be 
manufactured  from  good,  sound  timber,  thoroughly  kiln- 
dried,  turned  true  to  size,  and  shall  be  %  inch  in  thick- 
ness after  being  dressed  on  one  side;  of  such  diameter 
as  is  required,  well  jointed,  and  free  from  all  defects 
making  it  unfit  for  use  in  No.  1  barrels,  with  straight 
joints  unless  otherwise  specified. 

No.  1  hardwood  or  mixed  timber  heading  shall  be  of 
same  specifications  as  above,  excepting  that  the  thick- 
ness after  being  dressed  shall  be  VIQ  inch. 

Mill-run  heading  shall  be  the  forest  run  of  the  log, 


300  COOPEBAGE 

or  bolt,  well  manufactured,  of  standard  thickness  and 
kiln-dried;  all  dead  culls  to  be  thrown  out. 

No.  2  heading  shall  be  heading  sorted  from  the  No.  1 
and  to  be  put  up  so  that  it  is  workable  and  free  from 
dead  culls. 

Dead-cull  heading  is  classified  as  anything  not  useful 
nor  serviceable,  such  as  knot  holes  of  over  %  inch  in 
diameter,  bad  slanting  shakes,  rotten  timber,  or  other 
bad  defects  that  make  it  unworkable. 

All  heading  to  be  well  bundled;  number  of  pieces  to 
the  head  not  to  exceed  the  following: 

No.  1  and  mill-run  grades,  13%  to  15%  inches,  inclusive, 
four-piece. 

No.  1  and  mill-run  grades,  above  15%  to  17%  inches, 
inclusive,  three  and  four-piece;  at  least  50  per  cent,  to 
be  three-piece. 

No.  1  and  mill-run  grades,  18  to  19%  inches,  inclusive, 
three,  four  and  five-piece ;  at  least  50  per  cent,  to  be  four- 
piece  or  less. 

All  stock  not  specifically  mentioned  should  be  bought 
and  sold  on  terms  and  specifications  agreed  upon  between 
the  buyer  and  seller. 

When  heading  shall  be  specified  to  be  made  of  a  cer- 
tain kind  or  kinds  of  timber  in  any  deal  or  contract,  any 
timber  other  than  that  specified,  if  found  mixed  in  with 
the  timber  specified,  shall  be  classified  as  off-grade. 


SECTION  X 


SLACK  BARREL  HOOP 
MANUFACTURE 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  HOOPS 


GENERAL    REMARKS 

SINCE  elm  timber  has  become  so  scarce  and  the  first 
quality  high  in  price,  manufacturers  of  hoops  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  country  are  facing  a  serious  prob- 
lem. It  is  generally  conceded  that  hoops,  as  well  as  all 
other  cooperage  stock,  should  be  marketed  at  a  reason- 
able price,  and  manufacturers  interested  in  the  perma- 
nent trade  desire  to  keep  the  values  consistent  with  those 
of  staves  and  heading,  especially  since  the  wire  and  flat- 
steel  hoops  have  made  such  serious  encroachments  of 
late  years  upon  their  trade.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
manufacturers  in  Michigan,  there  are  no  concerns  hold- 
ing large  quantities  of  elm  timber  or  timbered  lands,  and 
it  is  commonly  admitted  that  small  factories  temporarily 
located  where  tracts  of  elm  timber  can  be  found  are  bet- 
ter propositions  than  more  permanent  institutions. 

In  the  South,  conditions  are  somewhat  different.  The 
amount  of  elm  found  to  the  acre  is  small,  and,  in  some 
localities  the  timber  is  very  brash,  and  if  the  best  qual- 
ity of  stock  is  made,  large  quantities  of  defective  hoops 
must  be  thrown  away  during  the  process  of  manufacture. 
The  most  advantageous  locations  for  hoop  mills  in  the 
South  seem  to  be  river  points,  so  that  a  large  area  can 
be  covered.  Starting  with  the  purchasing  and  cutting 
of  the  timber,  there  are  many  opportunities  for  mis- 
takes and  losses  before  the  manufactured  hoop  is  loaded 
into  the  car.  In  the  first  place,  timber  must  be  bought 
of  the  right  quality.  Though  some  trees  show  green  leaves 
and  are  apparently  in  good  condition,  many  are,  at  the 


304  COOPEBAGE 

same  time,  so  old  that  they  are  not  a  profitable  invest- 
ment for  hoop  timber.  Dry  rot  has  set  in,  and  especially 
near  the  heart  the  wood  is  a  total  waste.  Second-growth 
hard  elm  generally  makes  a  very  poor  hoop.  In  the  saw- 
mill such  timber  cannot  be  separated  into  stave  bolts 
and  hoop  plank,  as  can  many  logs  having  common  defects, 
but  the  entire  piece  is  often  unfit  for  hoops,  and  had  bet- 
ter be  left  in  the  woods.  Eaw  material  purchased  for 
the  purpose  of  making  flat  or  coiled  hoops  should  be,  if 
possible,  sound  timber,  free  from  knots,  wormholes,  splits, 
and  wind-shakes,  and  must  be  a  kind  of  wood  that  will 
coil  easily  when  steamed  or  boiled  without  undue  break- 
age. 

.THE   PATENT   HOOP 

What  is  known  as  "the  patent  hoop"  is  a  thin  strip 
of  tough  wood,  principally  elm,  between  1  and  2  inches 
wide  and  4  to  7  feet  long.  It  is  made  with  one  edge 
thick  and  the  other  edge  thin.  The  thick  edge  should 
be  nearly  twice  the  thickness  of  the  thin  edge,  and  this 
difference  in  thickness  should  be  entirely  on  the  inside 
of  the  hoop,  forming  a  bevel  to  conform  to  the  shape  of 
the  barrel  or  package,  while  the  outside  of  the  hoop 
should  be  straight.  (See  Fig.  92.)  The  standard  barrel 


FIG.  92.     END  SECTION  OF  PATENT  HOOP. 

hoop  should  be  1%  inches  wide,  with  the  thick  edge  %6 
inch  and  the  thin  edge  %6  inch  in  thickness.  One  end 
of  the  hoop  is  pointed,  while  the  other  end  is  thinned 
down  like  a  wedge  and  forms  what  is  termed  the  lap. 
Both  the  thick  and  thin  edges  of  the  hoop  are  rounded. 


SLACK  BARREL  HOOP  MANUFACTURE  305 


METHODS   OF   MANTJFACTUBE 

There  are  two  distinct  methods  of  manufacturing  the 
coiled  elm  hoop  and  several  systems  for  doing  the  work 
that  differ  somewhat  in  detail,  but  for  commercial  pur- 
poses we  can  divide  it  into  the  two  general  methods  of 
cutting  and  sawing.  In  the  former  method,  that  of  cut- 
ting, the  timber  is  sawn  into  planks  at  the  sawmill  of  a 
thickness  that  will  make  the  width  of  a  hoop,  then  cross- 
cut to  proper  length,  after  which  it  is  put  into  a  boiling 
vat,  and  when  the  wood  fibres  are  properly  softened  by 
the  hot  water  the  planks  are  taken  to  the  hoop  cutter  and 
sliced  by  a  large  knife  into  thin  strips  or  hoops,  and  then 
pointed  and  lapped. 

Where  sawn  hoops  are  made,  the  timber  is  also  sawn 
into  planks  at  the  sawmill,  but  instead  of  being  boiled 
and  cut  with  a  knife,  the  plank  is  run  through  a  gang 
ripsaw,  which  saws  it  into  bars  that  are  of  sufficient 
thickness  or  size  to  split  and  make  two  hoops.  By  this 
it  can  be  readily  seen  that  it  requires  more  timber  to 
make  a  given  amount  of  sawn  hoops  than  it  does  to  make 
the  same  number  of  cut  hoops,  because  a  certain  amount 
of  the  wood  is  wasted  in  sawdust.  In  fact,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  there  is  a  difference  of  about  1,000  hoops  in 
every  1,000  feet  of  logs.  In  other  words,  it  has  been 
found  that  1,000  feet  of  elm  logs  of  hoop  grade  will  make 
approximately  4,000  cut  hoops,  while  it  has  been  found 
that  3,000  is  nearer  the  average  if  the  timber  is  put  into 
sawn  hoops. 

With  this  great  difference  in  favor  of  cut  hoops,  it 
appears  there  would  never  be  any  sawn  hoops  made, 
especially  since  elm  timber  is  becoming  so  scarce;  but 
there  are  other  factors  which  enter  into  the  matter  and 
make  the  sawn  process  the  favorite  in  some  cases.  One 
thing  in  favor  of  the  sawn  hoop  is  the  portability  of  the 


306  COOPERAGE 

machines,  enabling  them  to  be  moved  more  readily  from 
one  locality  to  another  at  a  nominal  cost.  And,  again, 
it  has  generally  been  conceded  that  the  sawn  hoop  is 
really  superior  to  one  that  has  been  cut.  No  doubt  there 
is  a  lot  of  truth  in  this  assertion,  for  if  the  planks  are 
not  properly  boiled,  the  knife  in  forcing  its  way  through 
shatters  the  timber  more  or  less,  and  this  materially 
weakens  the  hoop.  Another  advantage  in  favor  of  the 
sawn  hoop  is  that  it  requires  less  capital  to  equip  a  plant 
for  sawing  hoops  and  a  smaller  degree  of  skill  for  main- 
tenance and  operation.  The  sawn  hoop  offers  many  little 
advantages  to  make  up  for  the  disadvantage  of  the  waste 
from  saw  kerf. 

The  machinery  necessary  to  equip  a  hoop  plant  for 
either  cut  or  sawn  hoops  depends  somewhat  on  what 
system  is  used.  The  general  plan,  however,  for  cut 
hoops  is  to  have  a  hoop  cutter — that  is,  a  long,  heavy 
knife  that  cuts  the  hoop  from  the  plank— a  jointer  or 
lapper,  a  hoop  planer,  and  a  coiler.  For  sawn  hoops 
one  generally  requires  a  sawing  outfit  which  consists  of 
a  machine  that  contains  both  a  planer  and  a  jointer  or 
lapper,  a  self-feeding  rip  or  gang  saw  for  preparing 
the  bars  or  strips,  and  a  coiler.  As  to  output,  it  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  the  cutting  machines  have  the 
largest  capacity.  The  average  machine  for  making  sawn 
hoops  will  turn  out  about  15,000  hoops  a  day,  while  some 
of  the  cutters  will  run  as  high  as  40,000  to  60,000  hoops 
per  day.  In  comparing  the  producing  machines  with  the 
subsidiary  machines,  including  coilers,  we  find  that  the 
average  coiling  machine  will  coil  about  as  many  hoops 
as  one  hoop-sawing  machine  will  make — that  is,  about 
15,000  hoops  a  day.  It  is  hardly  fair,  probably,  to  say 
that  this  is  an  average.  There  are  some  hoop-coiling  rec- 
ords in  which  these  figures  have  been  materially  exceeded, 
some  special  occasions  on  which  men  have  coiled  as  high 


SLACK  BAEEEL  HOOP  MANUFACTUEE  307 

as  66,000  hoops  in  one  day.  Usually,  however,  it  takes 
about  three  coilers  to  take  care  of  the  output  of  a  plant 
making  from  40,000  to  60,000  hoops  a  day,  and  the  gen- 
eral practice  is  to  have  about  three  hoop  coilers,  and 
sometimes  four,  to  each  hoop  cutter.  A  good  hoop- 
cutting  machine  will  cut  from  40,000  to  60,000  hoops  a 
day,  running  full  capacity.  Much,  of  course,  depends 
upon  the  quality  of  the  timber  as  well  as  the  skill  of  the 
operator,  and  40,000  hoops  is  probably  a  fair  day's  out- 
put. And  three  coilers  to  the  hoop  cutter  would  no 
doubt  make  a  well-balanced  equipment.  The  question 
of  selection,  however,  for  method  or  system  to  manufac- 
ture hoops  naturally  depends  somewhat  on  local  condi- 
tions, and  they  have  to  be  considered  in  each  case  sepa- 
rately. Still,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  odds  are 
against  the  sawn  system  as  a  timber  economizer,  it  is,  as 
a  rule,  about  the  best  method  for  a  sawmill  man  who 
desires  to  enter  into  the  manufacture  of  hoops  as  a  side 
line. 

MANUFACTUKE    OF    HOOPS 

Elm  has  been  principally  the  standard  hoop  timber, 
but  other  woods  lately  have  come  into  the  market.  Oak, 
ash,  birch,  and  hickory  make  good  hoops  and  are  used 
quite  extensively.  Some  beech  and  maple  have  also  been 
used  with  varying  results.  In  the  South,  pine,  gum,  cy- 
press, and  even  magnolia  hoops  are  very  often  used. 
This  class  of  timber  should  be  worked  in  the  green  state, 
otherwise  the  breakage  will  be  excessively  high.  In  the 
manufacture  of  hoops,  the  proper  sawing  of  the  plank 
is  essential  in  order  to  get  out  the  timber  to  the  best 
advantage,  and  a  great  waste,  which  is  caused  by  uneven 
planks,  is  often  noticed.  Through  carelessness,  some 
planks  often  will  vary  from  1%  to  1%  inches  instead  of 
being  sawn  true  and  to  proper  size,  which  should  be  l%e 


308 


COOPEEAGE 


inches  and  kept  to  within  %e  of  an  inch  of  the  proper 
thickness.  A  variation  of  more  than  this  amount  is  not 
necessary  if  the  saw  is  properly  adjusted  and  the  oper- 
ators are  experienced  and  attend  strictly  to  their  duties. 


FIG.  93.     SHORT  LOG  SAW  MILL. 


The  planks  being  sawn  1%6  inches  thick  allows  %2  inch 
on  each  side  for  planing,  which  is  ample,  the  finished 
hoop  then  being  1%  inches  wide,  which  is  the  standard 
width.  Some  hoop  manufacturers  cut  their  own  planks, 


FIG.* 94.     SELF-FEED  GANG  RIPSAW. 


while  others  purchase  them  already  cut  to  size  from  the 
sawmills.  When  the  planks  are  sawn  at  the  hoop  mill, 
the  short  log  sawmill,  as  shown  in  Fig.  93,  is  generally 
used. 


SLACK  BAEEEL  HOOP  MANIJFACTUEE  309 

THE    SAWN    PROCESS 

In  the  manufacture  of  hoops  by  the  sawn  process,  the 
plank  is  not  steamed  as  in  cutting.  Instead,  it  is  taken 
to  a  self- feed  gang  ripsaw  (Fig.  94  or  95),  where  the 
planks  are  sawn  or  ripped  into  hoop  bars  l%e  x  lViQ 
inches.  Each  bar  then  contains  sufficient  material  for 


FIG.  95.     SELF-FEED  GANG  RIPSAW. 

twa hoops.  These  bars  are  then  passed  through  'the  hoop 
machinery  proper,  after  which  the  hoops  are  steamed 
and  coiled.  On  the  gauge  ripsaws  illustrated,  saws  16 
inches  in  diameter  should  be  used  and  maintained  at  a 
speed  of  3,000  revolutions  per  minute.  After  the  plank 
has  been  ripped  into  hoop  bars  of  the  proper  dimensions, 


310 


COOPERAGE 


these  bars  are  taken  to  the  machine  illustrated  in  Fig.  96, 
known  as  "the  Trautman."  This  machine  makes  two 
complete  hoops  from  each  bar  fed  into  it,  as  it  saws  the 
bar  in  two,  planes,  points  and  laps  each  hoop.  In  opera- 
tion, one  end  of  each  bar  is  first  pointed  by  a  revolving 
cutter  head  at  the  front  end  of  the  machine,  and  is  then 
fed  into  the  feed  rolls.  These  carry  it  between  two  cutter 
heads,  which  plane  opposite  surfaces  of  the  blank,  while 
at  the  same  time  a  saw,  set  at  the  proper  angle  to  give 


FIG.  96.    THE  "TRAUTMAN"  SAWN-HOOP  MACHINE. 

the  correct  bevel,  divides  the  blank  into  two  hoops.  As 
they  pass  out,  each  hoop  is  lapped  by  an  assistant  at  the 
rear  end  of  the  machine.  These  two  operators,  generally 
a  man  and  a  boy,  should  obtain  the  rated  capacity  of 
15,000  hoops  per  day.  The  speed  of  the  countershaft  for 
this  machine  should  be  1,000  revolutions  per  minute. 
This  will  give  the  proper  speed  to  the  cutters  and  saws 
on  the  machine.  Saws  used  should  be  10  inches  in  diam- 
eter, 15  gauge.  The  hoops  are  then  taken  to  a  boiling  vat. 
These  tanks  are  generally  made  up  of  2  x  4-inch  stuff, 
nailed  or  bolted  securely  together,  preferably  bolted, 


SLACK  BARBEL  HOOP  MANUFACTURE  311 

and  are  about  7  feet  long,  5  feet  wide  and  3  feet  deep. 
The  hoops  are  softened  by  dropping  them  into  this  tank 
of  hot  water,  which  is  heated  by  exhaust  steam,  and  then 
coiled.  Another  excellent  sawn-hoop  machine  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  97,  and  is  known  as  "the  Kettenring. ' ' 


FIG.  97.     THE  "KETTENRING"  SAWN-HOOP  MACHINE. 

This  machine  also  makes  two  hoops  from  each  bar  fed 
into  it,  as  it  saws  the  bar  in  two  and  planes  each  hoop 
at  the  same  operation.  In  practice,  the  hoop  bar  is  first 
pointed  on  the  hoop  bar  chuck  pointing  machine  (Fig. 
98),  which  should  be  located  convenient  to  the  front  end 


FIG.  98.    HOOP-BAR  CHUCK  POINTING  MACHINE. 

of  the  Kettenring  machine,  and  then  fed  by  the  same 
operator  into  the  hoop  machine  (Fig.  97),  where  the  hoop 
bar  is  planed  and  sawn  into  two  hoops,  after  which  they 
are  lapped  by  an  assistant  on  the  machine  shown  in  Fig. 
99,  known  as  the  hand-feed  hoop-lapping  machine,  which 


312  COOPERAGE 

should  be  placed  convenient  to  the  discharge  end  of  the 
hoop-sawing  machine  (Fig.  97).  These  two  operators, 
generally  a  man  and  a  boy,  should  attain  the  rated  ca- 
pacity of  15,000  hoops  per  day.  The  speed  of  the  counter- 


FIG.  99.     HAND-FEED  HOOP  LAPPING  MACHINE. 

shaft  on  the  Kettenring  machine  should  be  1,000  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  This  will  give  the  proper  speed  to  the 
cutter  heads  and  saws  on  the  machine.  Saws  used  should 
be  10  inches  diameter,  15  gauge. 

THE    CUTTING    PKOCESS 

In  this  process,  as  in  manufacturing  staves,  many  of 
the  defects  in  hoops  can  be  directly  traced  to  improper 
steaming  or  boiling.  There  has  been  much  discussion 
as  to  whether  steaming  or  boiling  the  plank  is  the  more 
advantageous.  Either  process,  it  has  been  found,  if 
properly  carried  out,  will  bring  good  results,  but  the  most 
essential  feature  is  to  have  the  plank  thoroughly  cooked 
and  the  hoop-cutting  knife  sharp;  otherwise  the  timber 
will  be  more  or  less  shattered  and,  of  course,  will  not 
work  or  coil  with  as  low  a  percentage  of  breakage.  The 
disadvantages  of  steaming  the  plank  are  several.  For 
instance,  it  costs  much  more  to  erect  and  maintain  an 


SLACK  BARREL  HOOP  MANUFACTURE  313 

efficient  and  effective  steam-box  than  it  does  to  construct 
an  ordinary  boiling  vat,  where  no  pressures  are  to  be 
maintained.  Also,  where  steam-boxes  are  used  it  requires 
a  high  and  almost  uniform  steam  pressure,  with  conse- 
quent increased  firing  of  the  boiler ;  and  it  has  also  been 
found  that  a  steamed  plank  cools  much  quicker  when  ex- 
posed to  the  atmosphere,  and  that  when  once  cooled  off 
it  gets  very  hard  and  becomes  almost  impossible  to  work 
with  any  degree  of  success.  Also  the  labor  incident  to 
effective  steaming  of  planks  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
boiling.  Therefore,  considering  the  above  disadvantages, 
and  they  will  at  least  bear  investigation,  the  boiling 
of  planks  appears  to  be  the  more  efficient,  economical, 
and  practical  method  of  treating  the  timber  before  cut- 
ting into  hoops. 

THE    BOILING    VAT 

The  boiling  vat  is  as  important  to  the  hoop  mill  as 
the  steam-box  is  to  a  stave  mill.  It  should  be  given  its 
proper  share  of  care  and  attention,  and  should  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  at  regular  intervals.  The  dimensions  of 
the  vat  depend  mainly  on  the  capacity  of  the  mill,  but 
a  plant  with  a  contemplated  capacity  of  from  40,000  to 
50,000  hoops  per  day  of  ten  hours  should  provide  a  cook- 
ing vat  not  less  than  50  feet  long,  8  feet  wide  and  6  feet 
deep.  This  tank  or  vat  may  be  constructed  of  concrete 
or  pine.  Where  timbers  are  used,  a  good  construction 
can  be  made  by  using  2  x  4-inch  stuff  for  the  sides  and 
ends^planed  on  the  flat  or  larger  side  and  nailed  or  bolted 
firmly  one  on  top  of  the  other.  The  floor  should  be  of 
2-inch  stuff,  running  lengthwise  of  the  vat,  with  tongue 
and  grooved  flooring  running  crosswise,  and  held  in  place 
with  screws.  This  construction,  if  properly  carried  out, 
will  make  an  excellent  cooking  or  boiling  vat. 

Where  boiling  vats  are  constructed  of  concrete,  care 


314  COOPERAGE 

should  be  taken  that  they  are  built  on  firm  foundations ; 
otherwise  the  side  walls  will  crack  from  the  uneven  set- 
tling of  the  walls,  and  this  will  cause  leaks,  making  a 
very  unsatisfactory  and  troublesome  vat.  A  good  foun- 
dation may  be  made,  where  the  ground  is  fairly  firm,  by 
digging  down  below  the  surface  for  about  2  or  3  feet 
and  putting  in  a  layer  of  crushed  stone  about  18  inches 
deep;  then  on  top  of  this  pour  the  concrete.  The  side 
walls  should  be  tapered,  with  the  thickest  part  at  the  base, 
making  the  base  about  half  as  thick  again  as  the  top, 
and  at  intervals  throughout  the  construction  there  should 
be  reinforcements,  in  the  shape  of  rods  or  band  iron,  in 
order  to  hold  the  mass  firmly  together  and  lessen  the 
liability  of  cracks.  It  has  also  been  found  necessary  to 
put  an  extra  wooden  bottom  in  concrete  vats,  as  by  con- 
tinually dropping  the  plank  into  them,  if  care  is  not 
exercised,  they  will  strike  the  bottom  and  eventually  pro- 
duce large  holes  or  cracks  that  will  in  time  cause  leaks. 
This  can  be  overcome  by  placing  anchor  bolts  in  the 
bottom  at  regular  intervals,  which  can  be  used  for  fast- 
ening down  a  layer  of  3-inch  planks.  This  method  of 
protecting  the  bottom  is  also  necessary  on  top  of  the 
side  walls,  so  that  the  concrete  work  will  not  be  broken 
or  worn  away  by  the  continual  sliding  or  scraping  of  the 
planks  while  the  operator  is  placing  them  in  or  taking 
same  from  the  vat.  These  planks  can  then  be  renewed 
as  occasion  requires,  and  the  boiling  vat  kept  in  good 
condition.  The  mixture  for  this  construction  may  be  the 
same  as  that  given  for  concrete  steam-boxes  for  «tave 
bolts  in  Section  VIII.  With  boiling  vats  carefully  con- 
structed on  this  plan  they  should  give  excellent  satis- 
faction and  last  for  a  considerable  period,  with  little  or 
no  expense  for  repairs. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  the  best  results  are  ob-. 
tained  by  cooking  the  plank  standing  edgewise  or  plac- 


SLACK  BARBEL  HOOP  MANUFACTURE  315 

ing  in  tank  on  the  flat  side.  The  objections  to  boiling 
hoop  plank  flat  are,  that  in  order  to  secure  good  results 
the  plank  must  be  kept  apart  or  separated.  This  necessi- 
tates the  use  of  cull  hoops  or  strips  between  the  plank, 
which  eventually  fall  to  the  bottom  of  the  vat,  causing 
difficulty  in  removing  the  plank  by  getting  tangled  with 
the  hook,  and  makes  frequent  cleaning  and  emptying  of 
the  tank  an  absolute  necessity.  Also,  it  has  been  found 
that  very  frequently  additional  labor  is  required,  from 
the  fact  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  remove  the  plank  from 
the  vat  when  laid  flat.  Considering  the  above  facts,  some 
of  the  largest  hoop  mills  have  adopted  the  method  of 
boiling  the  plank  edgewise,  and  for  this  purpose  they 
put  a  4  x  4  or  4  x  6-inch  timber  in  the  centre  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tank  the  full  length,  and  suspend  another 
about  12  inches  above  the  top  of  the  tank,  directly  over 
and  in  line  with  the  one  on  the  bottom.  In  these  timbers 
they  bore  holes  from  2  to  2%  inches  apart,  and  put  in 
%-inch  round  iron  rods  or  1-inch  pipe,  giving  the  appear- 
ance of  an  iron  fence  through  the  centre,  lengthwise  of 
the  tank.  The  planks  are  then  placed  in  these  spaces  on 
edge,  one  on  top  of  the  other.  By  this  method  the  boiling 
hot  water  has  free  access  to  the  planks  on  all  sides,  which 
are  thoroughly  cooked  in  less  time  than  if  lain  flat,  and  are 
easily  removed  from  the  tank  by  means  of  a  hook.  In  boil- 
ing hoop  planks,  as  in  steaming  stave  bolts,  care  should  be 
exercised  that  they  are  not  subjected  to  too  much  boil- 
ing. All  that  is  required  is  "merely"  to  soften  them  up, 
or,  in  other  words,  to  produce  the  highest  possible  degree 
of  sponginess,  without  loosening  the  fibres  of  the  wood 
from  each  other  to  cause  woolly  or  fuzzy  cutting.  The 
secret  in  turning  out  a  good  hoop  is  in  the  preparation 
of  the  stock,  and  a  part  of  the  secret  of  preparation  is 
letting  it  soak  thoroughly,  putting  in  more  time  prepar- 
ing it  than  is  the  practice  in  most  places,  not  using 


316  COOPEEAGE 

quite  so  much  heat.  It  is  really  doubtful  if  there  is  need 
to  raise  the  water  above  the  boiling  point  to.  properly 
prepare  planks  for  cutting,  as  when  we  go  above  the  boil- 
ing point  there  is  a  remarkably  strong  tendency  on  the 
part  of  the  heat,  and  the  boiling  incident  thereto,  to  dis- 
integrate the  wood.  If  the  stock  is  in  excellent  condi- 
tion for  cutting,  that  is,  duly  softened  without  being 
rendered  woolly  and  difficult  to  -cut,  then  half  the  battle 
is  won,  and  not  only  will  the  stock  cut  much  easier  and 
faster,  but  it  will  be  much  easier  to  keep  the  knife  in 
shape. 

The  condition  of  the  plank  when  entering  the  mill 
should  be  considered,  as  planks  cut  from  green  or  newly 


FIG.  100.     THE   HOOP   CUTTER. 

felled  trees  require  less  boiling  than  those  cut  from  logs 
which  have  lain  on  the  yard  or  in  the  woods  for  a  consid- 
erable period.  Hoops  vary  in  quality  more  than  any 
other  stock  manufactured,  and  this  can  be  traced  mostly 
to  improper  softening  of  the  wood  fibres  before  cutting. 

THE    HOOP    CUTTEK 

The  planks  after  having  been  prepared  properly  by 
boiling  are  then  taken  while  hot  to  the  hoop  cutters,  as 


SLACK  BAEEEL  HOOP  MANUFACTUEE  317 

shown  in  Figs.  100  and  101,  where  they  are  cut  into  hoops. 
Care  should  be  taken  that  the  stock  is  cut  so  that  the 
hoops  will  go  to  the  planers  %2  inch  full,  heavier  than  the 
specifications  call  for  when  finished,  on  both  the  thick 
and  thin  edges,  so  that  the  hoops  will  leave  the  planers 
about  %4  inch  scant,  or  plump,  %e  and  %e  inch.  This 
allowance  should  be  made  for,  the  shrinkage  of  the  tim- 
ber while  it  is  being  seasoned  in  the  yard.  Quite  a  num- 
ber of  hoops  are  placed  on  the  market  that  are  not  fin- 
ished properly.  Some  manufacturers  evidently  do  not 
place  much  importance  on  the  fact  that  a  hoop  should  be 
well  finished.  If  enough  timber  is  fed  into  the  planer 


FIG.  101.    THE  HOOP  CUTTER. 


so  that  the  cutters  can 'do  their  work  well  there  should 
be  no  difficulty  in  finishing  up  the  hoops  properly  and 
in  a  workmanlike  manner,  providing,  of  course,  that  the 
machine  is  kept  in  good  repair,  the  knives  on  the  cutter- 
heads  sharp  and  well  balanced,  and  the  bearings  prop- 
erly adjusted.  These  hoop-cutting  machines  should  be 
run  at  a  speed  of  200  revolutions  per  minute  on  the  tight 
and  loose  pulleys,  and  if  maintained  at  this  speed,  with 
the  knife  properly  cared  for,  the  tilting  mechanism  and 
other  working  parts  carefully  looked  after,  should  turn 
out  about  70,000  perfectly  cut  and  bevelled  hoops  in  a 
day's  work. 


318  COOPERAGE 

THE    HOOP   PLANER 

The  illustration  (Fig.  102)  represents  the  automatic 
triple  hoop  planer,  which  is  considered  one  of  the  best 
on  the  market  for  the  purpose  of  planing  wood  hoops. 
When  properly  cared  for  this  machine  is  accurate  and 
rapid,  it  being  so  arranged  as  to  plane  three  hoops  at 
one  time,  and  should  perform  this  work  at  the  rate  of 
35,000  hoops  per  day  of  ten  hours.  The  proper  planing 
and  finishing  of  a  hoop  determines  its  general  appear- 
ance and  often  its  ultimate  value,  and  is  a  part  of  hoop 
manufacture  frequently  given  too  little  attention.  In  hoops 


FIG.  102.    THE  AUTOMATIC  TRIPLE  HOOP  PLANER. 

that  are  well  finished  or  planed,  the  breakage  will  be  con- 
siderably less,  both  at  the  hoop  coiler's  and  later  in  the 
cooper  shop  when  they  are  finally  used.  When  the  cutter- 
head  spindles  are  allowed  to  jump  or  rattle,  it  gives  the 
finished  hoop  a  wavy  appearance,  and  in  some  instances, 
where  the  wood  is  slightly  cross-grained,  this  jumping  of 
the  cutter-head  spindle  has  a  tendency  to  dig  into  the  wood 
or  break  it  out  at  that  point,  and  it  will  be  found  to  weaken 
considerably  the  hoop,  and  that  a  great  many  will  break  at 
the  coiler's  or  afterwards  in  the  coil,  and  is  caused  by  this 
inattention  of  the  spindle  bearings.  In  babbitting  these 


SLACK  BAEEEL  HOOP  MANUFACTUEE  319 

bearings  it  is  always  preferable  to  /'line"  them  with 
several  pieces  of  thin  cardboard,  instead  of  using  one  or 
two  pieces  of  thick  leather  belting,  as  is  generally  the 
custom.  Then,  if  the  bearings  need  adjusting,  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  take  out  one  of  these  thin  pieces  from 
each  side  of  the  cap  and  tighten  it  down  again.  If  this 
is  done  properly,  the  bearings  can  be  run  for  a  consid- 
erable period  before  rebabbitting.  The  bits  used  should 
be  l%e  inches,  and  should  always  be  kept  sharp  and  in  run- 
ning balance.  And  if  the  stock  fed  into  it  is  cut  so  that  the 
planer  can  perform  its  work  properly,  no  difficulty  should 
be  experienced  in  turning  out  a  well-finished  hoop,  and 
the  breakage  would  be  considerably  lessened.  It  has 


FIG.  103.    THE  AUTOMATIC  HOOP-POINTING  AND  LAPPING  MACHINE. 
i 

been  proven  that  at  least  forty  per  cent,  of  the  breakage 
of  hoops  at  the  coiler's  is  caused  by  faulty  workmanship 
at  the  planer. 

THE  HOOP-POINTING  AND  LAPPING  MACHINE 

After  the  hoops  have  been  cut  properly  and  planed, 
they  are  then  passed  through  the  machine,  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  103.  This  engraving  represents  an  automatic 
hoop-pointing  and  lapping  machine,  which  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  machines  for  this  purpose,  and  is  used 
by  the  large  hoop  manufacturers  for  equalizing,  point- 
ing, and  lapping  hoops,  all  these  operations  being  done 
at  one  time,  and  at  the  rate  of  60,000  hoops  per  day  of 
ten  hours.  In  operation,  the  hoops  are  placed  upon  the 


320 


COOPERAGE 


chain  feed  of  the  machine,  which  automatically  feeds 
them  forward  to  the  equalizing  and  pointing  knives, 
where  they  stop  just  long  enough  for  the  cutters  to  ac- 


FIG.  104.     "THE  WARD"  HOOP-COILING  MACHINE. 


complish  their  work,  when  they  again  move  forward  to 
the  lapping  cutters,  which  complete  the  work,  and  the 
finished  hoop  is  discharged  at  the  rear  side  of  the  ma- 
chine. The  speed  of  this  machine  should  be  700  revolu- 
tions per  minute  on  the  tight  and  loose  pulleys,  which 


SLACK  BAEEEL  HOOP  MANUFACTUEE  321 

are  12  inches  in  diameter.  There  are  no  saws  on  this 
machine,  and  the  fact  that  it  works  automatically  insures 
that  each  and  every  hoop  will  be  alike.  A  great  many 
hoops  are  often  put  into  the  coils  which  are  defective  on 
account  of  not  having  a  properly  thinned  lap,  or  in  some 
cases  with  no  semblance  of  a  lap  at  all.  The  proper  lap- 
ping of  a  hoop  is  a  very  essential  feature,  and  care  should 
be  exercised  at  all  times  that  this  point  is  not  neglected, 
as  when  the  lap  is  not  made  properly  or  thinned  down 
sufficiently,  the  hoop  with  the  defective  lap  when  put  into 


FIG.  105.     "THE  DEFIANCE"  HOOP-COILING  MACHINE. 

the  coil  will  often  cause  the  hoop  next  to  it  to  be  weak- 
ened and  break,  on  account  of  the  "dent"  or  short  crook 
put  into  it  by  coming  in  contact  with  this  blunt  end.  Even 
though  damage  on  this  account  is  not  common,  coopers 
prefer  a  hoop  that  is  properly  lapped,  and  very  often 
rejections  are  made  by  the  consumer  on  this  particular 
point. 

THE   HOOP-COILING  MACHINE 

The  hoop-coiling  machine  illustrated  in  Fig.  104  is 
known  as  "the  Ward,"  and  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful  oper- 


322  COOPEBAGE 

ator  should  turn  out  from  16,000  to  20,000  hoops  per  day, 
according  to  the  skill  of  the  operator.  The  speed  of  the 
driven  pulley  on  this  machine  should  be  330  revolutions 
per  minute.  Another  excellent  hoop-coiling  machine  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  105,  and  is  known  as  "the  Defiance." 
Its  rated  capacity  is  also  from  16,000  to  20,000  hoops  per 
day.  The  coiling  of  the  hoop,  after  having  been  manu- 
factured, is  more  of  an  important  feature  of  hoop-mak- 
ing than  is  generally  accredited  to  it,  as  a  hoop  well  manu- 
factured but  improperly  coiled  easily  will  lose  a  large 
percentage  of  its  quality.  It  is  often  the  practice  of  the 
coilers  to  use  a  stick  or  an  iron  bar,  placing  it  across 
the  boiling  vat,  and  then  take  out  a  large  quantity  of 
hoops  at  one  time,  allowing  them  to  rest  on  this  support 
while  being  coiled.  This  method  of  working  is  not  alto- 
gether a  bad  one,  provided,  of  course,  that  a  few  hoops 
are  taken  out  of  the  vat  at  one  time ;  but  where  a  large 
amount  is  taken  out,  a  great  many  of  the  hoops  get  cold 
or  cool  off  considerably  before  the  operator  succeeds  in 
coiling  them,  and,  therefore,  materially  increases  the  per- 
centage of  breakage  in  the  coils.  This  breakage  may  not 
altogether  appear  while  the  hoops  are  being  coiled,  but 
will  eventually  materialize  later  on,  when  the  coils  are 
opened.  Hoops  should  always  be  placed  in  the  coils  while 
they  are  hot;  otherwise,  if  coiled  cold,  the  fibres  of  the 
wood  are  strained  or  broken  entirely,  and  hoops  coiled  in 
this  condition  are  also  more  liable  to  mould  and  rot  than 
when  put  into  the  coils  when  hot.  Broken  or  unsound 
hoops  in  the  coils  are  the  primary  causes  of  a  great  many 
rejections  or  claims  for  reductions  by  the  cooper.  Care 
must  be  taken  also  with  the  inspection.  Many  hoop  man- 
ufacturers have  boys  to  do  this  work,  and  it  is  very  often 
done  in  a  very  careless  manner.  This  position  is  really 
an  important  one,  and  should- not  be  intrusted  to  an  in- 
competent workman.  The  smaller  sizes,  as  well  as  the 


SLACK  BAKEEL  HOOP  MANUFACTURE  323 

larger  ones,  should  be  inspected  carefully,  and  if  every 
hoop  that  shows  a  damaging  defect  is  thrown  out  enough 
will  remain  that  cannot  be  seen  or  that  will  develop  in 
seasoning  to  amply  cover  the  two  or  three  per  cent, 
allowed  for  breakage  and  loss.  When  the  mill  is  run- 
ning on  a  particularly  bad  lot  of  logs,  or  logs  that  have 
lain  too  long  on  the  yard  before  working,  and  the  break- 
age is  found  to  be  excessive,  even  for  only  a  short  time, 
assistance  should  be  given  the  regular  coiler,  or  the  hoops 
piled  to  one  side,  to  be  worked  over  at  odd  times.  It  is 
in  such  instances  as  this  that  particularly  bad  hoops  suc- 
ceed in  getting  into  the  coils,  and  eventually  to  the  con- 
sumer, that  causes  considerable  trouble,  and  the  shipper 
eventually  gets  the  reputation  for  poor  quality  that  will 
remain  with  him  for  some  time.  Also,  the  cooper  becomes 
suspicious  of  his  stock  and  subjects  it  to  a  very  rigid  and 
careful  examination  or  inspection.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
a  more  careful  inspection  is  made  at  the  mill,  more  hoops 
will  probably  be  thrown  out,  but  the  shipper  gains  a  repu- 
tation for  good  quality  of  stock,  can  demand  and  will  se- 
cure better  prices  for  his  product,  and  a  great  many  de- 
fects will  at  times  pass  unnoticed  by  the  cooper. 

PILING    ON    YARD 

Hoops  to  be  properly  piled  on  the  yard  should  be  placed 
on  platforms  not  less  than  one  foot  above  the  ground 
and  the  grass  and  weeds  kept  close  cut,  in  order  that  they 
will  not  obstruct  or  retard  the  proper  circulation  of  air 
through  and  around  the  several  piles.  When  properly 
seasoned  they  should  be  taken  in  and  placed  under  cover 
or  shipped,  and  not  allowed  to  remain  exposed  to  the 
rains  and  sun  until  they  become  over-seasoned,  often  be- 
coming brash  as  well  as  unduly  discolored.  This  piling 
of  hoops  to  the  weather  is  fully  as  important  as  that  of 


324  COOPEEAGE 

staves,  and  should  be  treated  with  the  same  care  and 
attention. 

STANDARD  SPECIFICATIONS  AND  GRADES 

The  standard  specifications  and  grades,  as  acted  upon 
and  adopted  by  the  National  Slack  Cooperage  Manufac- 
turers' Association  as  regards  the  proper  grading  of 
slack  barrel  hoops,  follows: 

Standard  dimensions  of  coiled  elm  hoops  from  5  feet 
6  inches  to  6  feet  9  inches  in  length  shall  be  made  so  as 
to  measure  when  finished  and  seasoned  not  less  than  %e 
inch  in  thickness  on  the  top  or  thick  edge,  and  %e  inch 
in  thickness  on  the  bottom  or  thin  edge,  and  not  less  than 
1%  inches  in  width. 

Hoops  less  than  5  feet  6  inches  in  length  may  be  made 
same  width  and  thickness  as  longer  hoops,  unless  other- 
wise agreed  upon  by  buyer  and  seller. 

Dimensions  of  standard  keg  hoops,  5  feet  and  shorter, 
to  be,  when  finished  and  seasoned,  not  less  than  %  inch 
in  thickness  on  the  top  or  thick  edge,  and  %  inch  in  thick- 
ness on  the  bottom  or  thin  edge,  and  not  less  than  1% 
inches  in  width. 

No.  1  hoops  shall  be  of  good,  sound  timber,  up  to  the 
specifications,  well  finished,  and  free  from  breakage  and 
other  defective  hoops  that  make  them  unfit  for  use  on  a 
barrel,  to  be  dry  or  well  seasoned  when  shipped. 

HEAD  LINERS 

The  demand  for  head  liners  of  various  sizes,  lengths, 
and  shapes,  such  as  are  used  to  secure  the  heads  in  slack 
barrels,  has  increased  in  the  past  few  years  to  such  an 
extent  that  special  machinery  with  large  capacity  has 
been  made  to  produce  them.  The  machine  shown  in  Fig. 


SLACK  BAEEEL  HOOP  MANUFACTUEE  325 

106  has  been  constructed  especially  for  this  branch  of  the 
industry,  and  is  considered  the  most  complete  machine 
for  the  purpose.  It  is  simple  in  construction,  automatic 
in  its  operation,  and  can  be  operated  by  a  boy.  It  pro- 
duces three  head  liners  crimped  and  complete  at  a  time, 
having  a  capacity  of  50,000  liners  per  day.  The  making 
of  head  liners  is  a  good  side  line  for  a  hoop  or  stave  mill, 


FIG.  106.     THE  HEAD-LINER  MACHINE. 

as  it  considerably  reduces  the  waste  problem,  as  the  ma- 
terial from  which  liners  can  be  made  consists  of  defective 
and  undersized  hoops,  staves,  slabs,  etc.,  and  the  sur- 
plus which  collects  about  the  mill  or  factory  and  is  of  no 
value  other  than  for  purposes  of  this  character.  It  is 
equally  well  adapted  for  making  barrel  hoops,  hoops  and 
handles  for  fruit  and  other  baskets,  and  trunk  slats,  by 
simply  using  suitable  knives  and  removing  the  crimping 
attachment.  Speed  of  countershaft  on  machine  1,180 
revolutions  per  minute. 


SECTION   XI 


MODERN 
SHOP  MANAGEMENT 


MODERN   SHOP   MANAGEMENT 

IN  this  article  I  propose  to  deal  more  particularly  with 
the  commercial  or  financial  aspect  of  the  management 
of  mill  or  factory,  as  distinct  from  the  practical  side  of 
the  manufacture,  although  in  a  sense  the  one  is  as  prac- 
tical a  subject  as  the  other.  I  shall  therefore  aim  to 
bring  forth  a  few  of  the  leading  principles  of  successful 
management  as  practised  by  the  modern  factory  man- 
ager or  superintendent.  This  is  undoubtedly  an  era  of 
keen  and  sharp  competition,  and  in  order  to  keep  up  with 
the  fast-moving  procession  we  must  keep  in  close  touch 
with  all  the  details  of  the  business,  lest  there  be  a  small 
leakage  somewhere  that  eventually  will  grow  to  harmful 
magnitude.  Many  a  concern  to-day  is  struggling  under 
a  load  imposed  upon  it  by  bad  and  inefficient  system,  both 
of  management  and  of  details  of  factory  and  office  work. 
Some  will  not  awaken  to  a  full  realization  of  the  situa- 
tion until  some  finely  organized  competitor  drives  them 
to  the  point  where  an  investigation  of  "what  is  wrong " 
is  absolutely  necessary.  Then  they  will  become  enlight- 
ened of  the  fact  that,  instead  of  profits,  the  concern  has 
been  steadily  on  the  down  grade  through  its  dilatory 
and  unprogressive  methods,  and  that  it  will  take  strenu- 
ous efforts  on  the  part  of  every  one  concerned  to  place 
it  on  a  proper  basis  again. 

Modern  commercialism  not  only  demands  the  finest 
and  best  machinery,  the  most  capable  and  skilful  men, 
working  at  the  highest  possible  pitch,  but  also  renders 
it  imperative  that  all  component  parts  be  knit  together 
by  modern  methods  of  organization  and  that  product, 
processes,  departments,  and  workmen  be  checked  up 
and  their  efficiency  gauged  by  the  most  thorough  meth- 


330  COOPERAGE 

ods  of  accounting  and  system.  The  one  thing,  un- 
doubtedly, that  contributes  more  to  a  mill  turning  out 
an  inferior  quality  of  stock  than  any  other  is  lack  of 
properly  trained  and  skilled  labor.  There  is  hardly  a 
position  about  a  mill  where  the  efficiency  might  not  be 
improved  through  careful  and  proper  training.  It 
would  almost  seem  as  though  some  of  the  manufac- 
turers thought  any  unskilled  and  uneducated  tramp  was 
competent  to  perform  the  duties  attached  to  any  of  the 
several  positions  in  and  about  a  stave,  heading,  or  hoop 
mill;  but  experience  has  proven  that  help  of  this  class 
is  a  detriment  to  the  mill.  The  workman  who  takes  pride 
in  his  knowledge  and  experience  in  the  trade,  and  who 
knows  much  more  than  is  required  of  him  to  perform 
properly  the  duties  set  before  him,  is  the  help  that  per- 
forms the  task  with  the  greatest  ease  and  skill.  Investi- 
gation will  prove  that  the  manufacturer  who  has  the 
reputation  of  turning  out  the  best  quality  of  stock  to-day, 
in  the  absence  of  an  industrial  or  training  school,  is  using 
the  old  apprentice  system  modernized  to  suit  his  require- 
ments and  to  meet  the  present  industrial  and  domestic 
conditions  in  training  the  help  properly  to  perform  the 
various  duties  about  the  plant.  The  help  must  be  thor- 
oughly instructed  in  the  operation  and  care  of  the  various 
machines  and  be  well  versed  in  the  requirements  of  the 
user  of  the  class  of  stock  he  is  manufacturing,  and  also 
be  familiar  with  the  standard  specifications  and  grades 
of  this  article. 

How  often  has  it  occurred  that  a  firm,  prosperous 
in  the  early  days  of  its  existence,  failed  utterly  after 
it  had  grown  to  such  size  as  to  make  it  impossible 
for  the  heads  to  retain  that  "personal  touch "  with 
its  details  which  was  exercised  previously.  The  fac- 
tory superintendent  or  manager  of  to-day  must  retain 
that  vital  touch  with  the  internal  working  of  his  organi- 


MODERN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT     331 

zation  in  this  era  of  close  competition,  small  profits, 
and  intense  activity  of  production;  and  in  order  to  do 
this,  he  must  necessarily  be  a  practical  man,  knowing 
minutely  all  the  smallest  details  of  the  business,  in  order 
to  distinguish  the  inefficient  portions  from  the  strong 
parts,  and  able  to  assign  unerringly  the  cause  for  such 
inefficiency,  in  order  that  he  may  throw  all  of  his  power, 
knowledge,  and  years  of  experience  into  the  strengthen- 
ing of  such  weak  points.  He  must  be  able  to  remove 
immediately  any  increase  in  expenses  or  deterioration 
in  working  efficiency  in  any  of  the  different  departments 
of  the  business.  He  must  seek  to  avoid  the  employment 
of  unnecessary  non-productive  labor,  and  unless  he  can 
see  very  clearly  into  the  future,  he  must  be  very  careful 
about  employing  or  engaging  straight-time  help,  because 
whenever  production  becomes  dormant  the  expenses 
necessarily  must  be  cut  to  a  minimum.  He  must  satisfy 
himself  that  the  costs  are  calculated  upon  a  correct  basis, 
that  they  are  compiled  in  such  a  manner  as  to  show  in 
detail  any  unnecessary  increases  in  operating  expenses, 
as  well  as  to  render  it  possible  to  make  intelligent  exam- 
inations and  comparisons,  with  a  view  to  the  effecting  of 
economies.  This  cannot  be  accomplished  unless  a  com- 
plete and  accurate  set  of  records  are  judicially  and  sys- 
tematically kept  and  rigidly  adhered  to.  It  will  greatly 
aid  the  always  busy  and  usually  overworked  man  "at 
the  helm"  to  a  more  comprehensive  and  accurate  survey 
of  the  entire  workings  of  the  plant  and  to  the  location  of 
the  responsibility  for  good  and  bad  results. 

In  an  established  factory  the  manager  may  have  many 
difficulties  to  contend  with  if  the  works  have  not  been 
carefully  planned  in  view  of  all  circumstances,  and  the 
most  he  can  do  in  such  cases  is  to  minimize  the  consequent 
disadvantages  by  judicial  internal  economies  and  by 
structural  modifications  when  possible.  The  ideal  factory 


332  COOPEBAGE 

is  that  in  which  there  is  no  unnecessary  handling  of  raw 
material  and  in  which  everything  when  received  at  the 
works  is  stored  so  as  to  be  readily  available  for  use  when 
needed.  The  buildings  should  be  provided  with  all  the 
daylight  available,  and  should  be  so  arranged  that  the 
respective  foremen  can  readily  see  all  that  is  going  on, 
as  when  they  have  to  supervise  a  number  of  workmen 
widely  separated  much  time  is  lost  and  the  supervision  is 
less  effective  than  when  the  foreman  is,  so  to  speak,  on 
the  spot. 

In  a  great  many  cooperage  concerns,  and  especially  so 
amongst  the  smaller  mills,  the  foreman  is,  so  to  speak, 
the  whole  show.  He  is  expected  to  fill  all  the  important 
positions  in  and  about  the  plant,  keep  the  machinery  up, 
and  in  some  cases,  after  working  long  hours,  devote  his 
spare  time  to  the  keeping  of  the  accounts.  You  can  rest 
assured  that  in  such  cases  they  are  few  and  those  of  a 
very  brief  nature.  I  have  often  marvelled  at  the  tenacity 
of  such  concerns  in  holding  on  to  business  life,  consider- 
ing the  meagre  accounts  and  records  kept  and  the  lament- 
able lack  of  detailed  information  of  costs.  Considera- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  question  of  securing  the  full 
efficiency  of  the  foreman,  usually  high  priced;  it  is  cer- 
tain that  he  is  one  of  the  most  important  links  in  the 
chain.  As  he  is,  so  will  his  workmen  be.  As  the  work- 
men are,  so  will  the  quality  and  cost  of  the  product  be. 
And  on  the  quality,  quantity,  and  cost  of  the  product 
hangs  the  success  of  the  business.  Do  not  load  him  up 
with  detail  wqrk.  That  is  one  of  the  gravest  errors  of 
many  if  not  most  of  the  concerns  to-day.  His  chief  aim 
should  be  to  improve  the  quality,  increase  the  quantity, 
lower  the  cost,  if  possible,  and  investigate  and  devise 
improved  methods  of  manufacture,  machinery,  etc.  And 
if  he  is  an  exceptionally  good  and  conscientious  man,  he 
should  be  permitted  to  make  occasional  visits  to  estab- 


MODERN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT     333 

lishments  in  other  and  nearby  towns  or  cities,  in  order 
that  he  may  not  ' l  grow  stale ' '  from  continuous  and  unin- 
terrupted association  with  the  same  surroundings.  It 
would  be  an  encouragement  to  him  and  would  assist  ma- 
terially toward  brightening  up  his  ideas.  It  is  also  an 
employer's  duty  to  look  after  the  comfort  and  improve- 
ment of  his  workmen,  as  far  as  is  possible,  and  it  is  im- 
perative that  the  risk  of  accident  be  minimized  by  all 
possible  precautions  for  the  protection  of  life  and  limb; 
but  having  done  all  this,  it  will  also  be  advisable  to  in- 
sure against  the  monetary  risk  of  accidents.  It  will  be 
obvious  that  where  an  employer  has  the  interest  of  his 
workmen  at  heart,  and  the  relationship  between  them  is 
satisfactory,  production  will  be  increased  greatly  and 
waste  relatively  minimized,  as  a  result  of  voluntary  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  workmen. 

Frequently  waste  arises  through  thoughtlessness  or  of 
not  being  instructed  properly.  This  is  especially  notice- 
able in  the  operations  of  jointing  staves  and  heading  and 
in  the  matching  up  of  heading  pieces.  Too  great  impor- 
tance cannot  be  attached  to  the  co-operation  of  employees 
in  regard  to  the  different  operations  of  manufacture. 
Many  intelligent  workmen  could  suggest  improvements, 
but  because  of  lack  of  encouragement  they  feel  it  no  busi- 
ness of  theirs  to  do  so.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  operates 
against  the  interests,  and  the  sooner  it  is  altered  the 
better  will  it  be  for  all  concerned.  For  inventive  genius 
should  be  at  all  times  encouraged  and  suitably  recog- 
nized, for  if  it  is  not,  the  employer  may  lose  not  only 
the  benefit  of  his  workmen's  suggestions,  but  may  find 
that  their  ideas  have  been  carried  to  his  competitors, 
with  the  result  that  often  valuable  suggestions,  ideas,  or 
inventions  are  developed  and  monopolized  by  others. 

To  remedy  this,  an  employer  should  have  frequent  con- 
sultations with  his  men,  and  especially  with  his  foreman. 


334  COOPERAGE 

He  should  be  taken  into  his  confidence.  A  great  many 
costly  mistakes  could  be  avoided  by  the  simple  matter  of 
organization,  whereby  an  employer  would  derive  the  ben- 
efit of  the  experience  of  others.  In  the  first  place,  meet- 
ings or  consultations  should  be  held  regularly,  and  the 
foreman  and  the  men  of  importance  in  and  around  the 
plant  should  be  assembled  together.  Here  should  be  dis^ 
cussed  openly  and  freely  the  best  methods  of  manufac- 
ture, the  mistakes  that  are  commonly  made,  and  sugges- 
tions made  for  improvements,  both  in  the  machinery  and 
the  work  in  general.  Criticism  should  be  sought  for  and 
encouraged.  These  men  should  be  brought  into  sympathy 
with  the  aims  and  purposes  of  the  business,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, instructed  and  trained  in  the  best  methods  of  hand- 
ling men  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  their  working  ef- 
ficiency, increasing  their  interest  in  their  work,'  and  using 
the  most  effective  methods  of  securing  the  best  general 
results  for  both  the  workmen  and  the  company. 

A  firm  is  adopting  a  very  short-sighted  business  policy 
when  it  refuses  to  acknowledge  the  fact  that  decisions  based 
upon  free  discussion  and  deliberation  with  men  of  long 
experience,  no  matter  how  humble,  are  wiser,  stronger, 
and  much  more  effective  than  those  of  any  one  man. 

It  is  also  an  advantage  to  retain  workmen  in  as  regular 
employment  as  possible.  Otherwise  the  services  of  good, 
skilled  workmen  may  be  permanently  lost  to  the  firm.  As 
a  matter  of  course,  skilled  workmen  should  be  the  last  to 
be  laid  off  when  there  is  a  business  lull.  Old  employees 
should  always  be  encouraged,  having  generally  a 
greater  interest  in  their  employer's  business  than  new 
hands.  At  the  same  time,  the  infusion  of  new  blood  into 
the  ranks  at  various  times  is  desirable,  as  one  cannot 
afford  in  these  days  of  keen  competition  and  progressive 
industrial  methods  to  be  too  conservative  of  old  ideas 
which  may  be  capable  of  improvement.  Inefficient  work- 


MODERN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT     335 

men,  like  poor  tools,  are  dear  at  any  price;  and  it  is 
therefore  essential  that  only  capable  and  skilled  workers 
be  employed,  and  that  they  receive  good  wages  for  such 
services. 

Regularity  and  punctuality  should  also  be  insisted 
upon,  for  it  is  a  source  of  loss  to  operate  a  factory 
where  a  number  of  workmen  are  constantly  absent  or 
systematically  late  in  arriving  at  their  work.  In  intro- 
ducing a  system  of  good  wages  for  their  workmen,  the 
management  should  have  many  aims  in  view.  The  most 
important  of  these  are  as  follows:  The  possibility  of 
shop  economies  and  cheaper  production;  the  forcing  of 
the  factory  to  its  maximum  capacity  quickly ;  the  attrac- 
tion of  expert  and  more  skilful  workmen  and  their  en- 
couragement to  use  their  skill  and  wits  to  the  utmost; 
the  singling  out  of  the  slovenly,  slow  workers  for  either 
development  or  discharge;  the  cultivation  of  a  feeling 
on  the  part  of  the  men  that  the  company  is  firm  in  its 
determination  to  be  just  and  fair  and  that  its  insistence 
on  a  high  rate  of  production  is  justified  by  the  rate 
of  wages  paid.  To  this  feeling  must  be  added  the  knowl- 
edge that  the  company  will  insist  upon -a  full  day's  work. 

To  accomplish  these  aims,  the  one  important  factor— 
"the  man  at  the  machine, "  with  his  human  prejudices  and 
his  capabilities — must  be  carefully  considered.  It  is,  how- 
ever, surprising  to  note  how  little  attention  is  usually 
paid  to  this.  Policies  and  systems  vitally  affecting  the 
workman's  welfare  are  put  into  force  with  a  total  dis- 
regard both  to  his  willingness  and  his  ability  to  improve 
himself  and  his  product  under  proper  conditions  and  his 
.power  to  increase  costs  and  cause  other  even  more  seri- 
ous troubles  in  the  shop  when  the  conditions  are  not  as 
they  should  be.  These  facts  should  not  be  lightly  consid- 
ered. It  is  difficult  to  overestimate  the  value  of  having 
ybur  mill  or  factory  full  of  skilled,  alert,  and  contented 


336  COOPERAGE 

workmen,  who  will  give  you  a  maximum  of  production 
with  a  minimum  of  expense.  The  advantage  is  not  alone 
in  the  fact  that  costs  of  production  are'  lower,  but  the  feel- 
ings of  mutual  confidence  and  contentment  in  this  day 
of  labor  difficulties  are  in  themselves  of  great  value  to 
both  employer  and  employee.  The  men's  suggestions, 
given  as  a  consequence  of  this  feeling,  and  their  endeavor 
to  better  themselves  and  their  product,  will  not  only  lead 
to  many  improvements,  but,  reacting  on  them,  will  make 
them  stronger  men  and  better  workmen. 

The  mechanical  and  general  arrangement  of  a  slack 
stock  mill  is  such  that  one  operator  or  employee  must  de- 
pend upon  another  for  the  proper  performance  of  his  du- 
ties. The  mo(st  effective  practice  would  suggest  that  one 
employee  be  not  allowed  to  avoid  the  responsibility  of  his 
faults  by  charging  them  to  other  employees,  and  where 
the  workmen  are  charging  others  with  their  own  faults  or 
11  tattling "  on  each  other  there  is  faulty  management  in- 
dicated. 

While  in  all  commercial  enterprises  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction should  be  minimized  by  all  legitimate  means 
consistent  with  the  maintenance  of  quality,  it  is  no  less 
important  and  necessary  that  a  complete  system  of  cost- 
keeping  be  adopted.  Many  firms  are  satisfied  with  more 
or  less  approximate  cost,  because  at  the  end  of  the  year 
they  find  that  there  is  a  fair  margin  of  profit  over  all; 
but  without  accurate  costs  they  cannot  tell  whether  on 
some  of  their  product  they  are  not  losing  money.  The 
time  books  should  be  analyzed  carefully,  in  order  to  ob- 
tain accurate  costs ;  and  if  the  weekly  or  bi-weekly  wage 
totals  are  compared  in  relation  to  output,  it  will  facili- 
tate the  detection  of  error  or  mismanagement.  The 
question  of  working  expenses  has  a  most  important  bear- 
ing on  the  profits,  for  as  the  expenses  of  conducting  a 
business  are  high  or  low,  so  will  the  earnings  be  affected. 


MODEEN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT     337 

For  a  minimum  output,  certain  charges,  such  as  rent, 
taxes,  insurance,  management,  supervision,  salaries  of 
clerks,  etc.,  are  necessarily  incurred  each  year,  and  will 
vary  but  little  with  any  output  between  that  minimum 
and  a  certain  maximum.  For  example,  say  that  the  an- 
nual sales  amount  to  $250,000  and  the  working  expenses 
to  $30,000.  It  is  conceivable  that  if  such  sales  were  in- 
creased to,  say,  $300,000,  the  expenses  might  not  greatly 
exceed  the  above  figure,  or,  at  all  events,  would  not  in- 
crease in  proportion,  simply  because  the  same  estab- 
lishment is  equal  to  the  increased  trade.  Or,  in  other 
words,  the  resources  of  the  factory  are  not  in  the  first 
instance  fully  employed.  If  the  output  be  only  three- 
fourths  of  the  factory's  capacity,  it  is  clear  that  these 
three-fourths  are  bearing,  say,  one-fourth  more  of  the 
establishment  expenses  than  might  otherwise  be  charge- 
able, and  that  being  so,  it  is  equally  clear  that  if  the 
output  be  increased  to  the  full  capacity  the  profits 
will  increase,  even  though  the  additional  business  be 
less  remunerative,  provided  that  the  selling  price  is 
not  bare  cost,  but  carries  with  it  a  margin  for  working 
expenses. 

But  before  Advocating  any  policy  that  might  suggest 
itself  on  arriving  at  this  conclusion,  it  is  first  assumed 
that  the  output  has  been  and  under  ordinary  conditions 
is  likely  to  remain  stationary.  Contracts  on  a  large  scale 
are  sometimes  taken  at  prices  which  would  not  pay  on 
smaller  business,  but  which,  as  bringing  additional  grist 
to  the  mill,  keep  the  factory  fully  employed  and  earn 
a  profit  however  small.  The  fact  that  the  manufacturer 
has  generally  no  monopoly  reminds  us  that  he  runs  the 
risk  when  selling  cheaply  to  large  buyers  of  having  to 
reduce  his  prices  to  smaller  consumers.  He  has,  how- 
ever, in  that  event  the  advantage  of  a  factory  fully  em- 
ployed, enabling  him  to  compete  successfully  with  others, 


338  COOPERAGE 

should  they  compel  him  to  reduce  his  prices  generally. 
Even  if  he  does  not  accept  large  contracts  at  low  prices, 
but  leaves  it  to  other  manufacturers,  he  will  still  run  the 
risk  of  competition  without  having  the  advantage  re- 
ferred to.  In  other  words,  competition  on  the  part  of 
a  few  affects  the  many  by  lowering  prices,  and  it  is  there- 
fore advisable  to  be  early  in  the  field  and  to  take  the 
advantages  offered  by  a  good  going  concern  to  minimize 
the  rate  of  working  expenses.  The  percentage  of  work- 
ing expenses  may  also  be  minimized  by  an  established 
factory  which  is  only  partially  employed  by  branching 
out  into  another  line  of  business  more  or  less  allied  to 
its  own  and  for  which  it  may  be  adapted. 

While  the  foregoing  remarks  indicate  the  possibility 
of  increasing  the  output  without  a  proportionate  in- 
crease in  the  working  expenses,  it  is  often  possible  to 
reduce  the  actual  working  expenses  without  affecting 
the  efficiency  of  the  production.  Too  often  working  ex- 
penses are  allowed  to  eat  into  the  profits  of  a  business 
without  a  due  appreciation  of  the  fact.  It  is  therefore 
very  desirable  to  scrutinize  all  expenditure  under  this 
head,  for  which  purpose  an  analysis  of  the  periodical 
accounts  should  be  made.  Each  item  df  expense  can 
be  worked  out  as  a  percentage  on  the  sales,  or  some 
other  convenient  basis,  and  compared  with  previous 
years'  figures.  If  the  total  of  sales  is  taken  as  the 
basis,  allowance  may  have  to  be  made  for  fluctuations 
in  selling  price,  and  for  this  reason  some  fixed  unit 
is  to  be  preferred  for  comparison.  The  amount  of 
capital  employed  in  any  business  should  not  exceed 
the  safe  minimum  necessary  for  the  efficient  and  econ- 
omical working  of  the  business,  as  a  superfluous  capital 
can  only  entail  loss  of  interest,  if  not  more  serious  con- 
sequences. While  an  inflated  capital  is  an  evil  to  be 
avoided,  it  will  be  evident  that  insufficient  capital  is  also 


MODERN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT     339 

a  source  of  danger  and  loss.  The  amount  of  liquid  cap- 
ital necessary  will  depend  upon  (among  other  things) 
the  turnover  and  output  and  the  facilities  for  obtaining 
the  raw  material  on  reasonable  credit.  When  labor,  re- 
quiring, as  it  does,  ready  money  for  wages,  forms  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  manufactured  article,  the 
liquid  capital  required  will  be  necessarily  high,  especially 
if  the  output  be  large ;  and  as  that  output  increases,  fur- 
ther capital  will  be  required  to  pay  additional  wages  and 
to  provide  larger  stocks  to  keep  pace  with  the  increased 
demand. 

Fixed  capital,  consisting  of  buildings,  machinery, 
plant,  etc.,  being  subject  to  depreciation,  should  be  writ- 
ten down  periodically,  and  there  should  be  no  division 
of  profits  without  first  making  a  safe  provision  for  this 
important  item  in  regard  to  all  wasting  assets.  All  re- 
pairs and  maintenance  should  be  scrupulously  charged 
to  revenue  or  against  reserves  previously  created  for 
that  purpose.  The  rate  of  depreciation  will  necessarily 
vary  according  to  circumstances  in  different  and  even 
in  similar  businesses,  and  as  deductions  for  depreciation 
are  more  or  less  estimates,  it  is  wiser  to  err  on  the  safe 
side  than  to  make  an  insufficient  provision.  The  prob- 
able lifetime  of  each  item  of  capital  which  is  subject  to 
deterioration  is  generally  the  basis  of  depreciation,  al- 
though this  is  not  always  a  safe  one,  even  with  former 
experience  as  a  guide.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
case  of  machinery. 

There  are  many  firms  to-day  using  machinery  of 
antiquated  type,  the  output  capacity  of  which  is  only 
a  fraction  of  that  of  the  more  up-to-date  machines; 
but  because  the  normal  lifetime  of  their  plant  has 
not  been  reached  they  will  not  discard  it,  oblivious  or 
indifferent  to  the  fact  that  their  policy  is  "  penny  wise 
and  pound  foolish. "  They  therefore  continue  to  deduct, 


340  COOPERAGE 

say,  5  or  10  per  cent,  per  annum,  but  would  find  it 
infinitely  more  profitable  to  write  100  per  cent,  from  the 
book  value,  less  its  scrap  value,  if  it  cannot  otherwise  be 
disposed  of,  and  to  install  the  more  modern  machine.  I 
am  a  strong  believer  in  scrapping  old  machinery  when 
new  and  improved  types  appear  on  the  market.  Of 
course,  consideration  must  be  given  to  the  interest  on  the 
cost  of  the  old  and  new  machines,  and  the  amount  gained 
in  economy  by  the  increased  output  or  the  better  quality 
of  manufacture.  Machines  should  be  forced  as  much  as 
possible  and  worn  out  quickly.  The  depreciation  will  be 
high,  but  the  product  will  be  cheaper,  profits  larger,  and 
the  sooner  the  old  machines  will  make  way  for  the  new 
and  improved  ones  that  will  give  increased  output  and 
better  results  at  the  same  expense  for  time  and  labor. 
Many  successful  concerns,  however,  appreciate  this  fact, 
and  will  throw  machinery  on  the  scrap  heap  or  sell  it 
long  before  its  natural  life  has  expired  simply  because 
of  its  inefficiency  as  compared  with  later  inventions. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  capital  intact,  buildings,  ma- 
chinery, plant,  and  stocks  must  of  course  be  fully  insured 
against  the  risk  of  fire.  In  the  case  of  factories  having  a 
number  of  separate  compartments  or  buildings,  between 
which  stocks  are  constantly  passing  to  and  fro,  it  is  an  ex- 
pensive matter  to  insure  the  stock  in  each  building  for 
separate  sums,  because  it  is  always  desirable  to  have  a 
margin  on  each  for  any  possible  increase  that  may  arise 
during  the  year,  especially  as  the  inventory  values  form- 
ing the  basis  of  insurance  may  not  fully  represent  the 
value  of  stock  at  the  busiest  period  of  the  year.  These 
margins  would  amount  in  the  aggregate  to  considerably 
more  than  would  be  sufficient  as  a  margin  if  the  whole 
stock  was  insured  in  one  sum.  To  obviate  this,  however, 
the  stock  throughout  the  works  can  be  insured  for  one 
sum,  subject  to  the  "  average  clause, "  which  will  in  no 


MODERN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT     341 

event  adversely  affect  the  insured  so  long  as  the  total 
stock  is  fully  covered.  Needless  to  say,  fire  insurance 
should  be  supplemented  by  the  employment  of  night  and 
day  watchmen,  and  it  is  also  desirable  to  have  sufficient 
fire-fighting  appliances  throughout  the  works  and  to  train 
a  number  of  employees  in  their  use. 

In  the  factory  office,  even  more  than  in  the  shop,  is 
the  question  of  discipline  as  regards  time  a  difficult 
one.  In  the  latter  men  can  be,  and  usually  are,  held 
pretty  closely  to  their  hours  by  a  system  of  checking 
out  for  a  part  of  the  day  and  a  consequent  loss  of 
pay.  In  the  office  such  a  plan  is  impossible,  but, 
nevertheless,  discipline  and  punctuality  are  quite  as 
necessary  as  in  the  shop.  In  office  work  there  always 
must  be  a  certain  amount  of  give  and  take,  and,  fairly 
treated,  the  average  clerk  will  be  disposed  to  act  fairly. 
As  in  the  shop  so  in  the  office,  except  under  exceptional 
circumstances,  any  advantage  gained  by  working  over- 
time is  more  apparent  than  real.  When  it  is  necessary, 
however,  clerks  will  usually  be  ready  and  willing  to 
put  in  the  extra  time,  provided  they  know  that  the 
management  see  and  realize  that  it  is  an  extra  effort 
that  is  being  called  for.  Where  clerical  work  is  not  kept 
up  to  date,  nine  times  out  of  ten  it  is  the  fault  of  those 
in  charge,  not  of  the  clerks ;  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
the  cause  is  neglect  of  thought  and  care  in  distributing 
the  work  and  planning  the  details. 

As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  anything  that 
tends  to  make  a  workman  or  a  clerk  more  interested  in 
his  work,  more  comfortable  in  his  surroundings,  or  more 
in  harmony  with  his  fellows  tends  to  lessen  the  cost  of  the 
workman's  product  or  of  the  results  obtained  by  the 
clerk's  labor ;  in  other  words,  to  reduce  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion. Even  in  such  a  small  matter  as  the  location  of  the 
desks  of  the  various  employees,  convenience  should  be 


342  COOPEEAGE 

studied,  and  as  a  result  time  saved.  These  and  similar 
matters,  admittedly  small  in  themselves,  may  collectively 
affect  the  question  of  time  and  therefore  of  cost  of  pro- 
duction to  a  greater  extent  than  will  readily  be  believed. 

In  all  industries  plans  of  future  courses  of  action  are 
very  essential  to  any  large  degree  of  success.  Of  course, 
a  slipshod  way  of  maintaining  the  interests  of  nearly  any 
business  is  in  vogue  in  many  cases,  but  the  general  unsat- 
isfactory results  of  such  maintenance  is  well  known.  A 
large  percentage  of  plans  undoubtedly  prove  to  be  flat 
failures  when  acted  upon,  but,  nevertheless,  a  certain 
amount  of  theoretical  foresight  is  necessary  to  all  prac- 
tical enterprises,  even  though  they  may  not  always  "work 
out"  entirely  up  to  expectations.  The  chief  foundation 
upon  which  the  majority  of  plans  and  future  projects  rests 
is  known  by  the  name  of  "system."  In  a  commercial 
sense  the  meaning  of  the  word  combines  the  results  of 
experience  and  the  consequent  education  received,  with 
the  most  advantageous  method  of  pursuing  business  from 
a  profitable  standpoint.  It  is  nothing  more  than  a  very 
simple  type  of  machine ;  however,  each  cog  in  the  make- 
up must  be  kept  thoroughly  oiled  in  order  to  obtain  a 
maximum  amount  of  power.  "System"  has  several 
meanings  attributed  to  it  when  poor  judgment  is  used. 
An  insufficient  quantity  is  generally  designated  as  "hap- 
hazard dealing,"  while  too  much  is  commonly  called 
"red  tape";  both  definitions  going  to  prove  the  fact 
that  common  sense  must  determine  the  necessary  amount 
to  be  applied. 

Especially  in  cooperage  manufacture,  systematic  and 
regular  methods  must  be  observed.  The  size  of  the 
plant  required  and  the  production  handled  naturally 
entails  a  careful  survey  and  consideration  of  the  best 
application  to  be  employed.  Consequently,  that  appli- 
cation is  reached  only  through  actual  experience  in  the 


MODERN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT     343 

'trade,  circumstances  and  location  of  business  having  a 
good  deal  of  bearing  on  the  subject.  Of  one  thing  there 
is  no  question — the  general  importance  of  regular,  con- 
cise, and  brief  reports.  It  is  as  much  a  necessity  to  have 
a  detailed,  comprehensive  statement  of  what  is  taking 
place  in  all  parts  of  the  working  section  of  a  factory 
as  it  is  important  to  keep  a  set  of  books  in  the  office. 
According  to  the  size  and  facilities  of  the  plant,  the  state- 
ment should  be  prepared  daily,  weekly,  or  monthly.  In 
this  way  progress  or  backsliding  is  easily  discovered  and 
guidance  as  to  encouragement  or  remedy  is  obtained. 
While  yearly  reports  are  undoubtedly  valuable  in  sum- 
ming up  past  business  and  laying  future  plans,  yet  the 
varying  trade  conditions  of  the  cooperage  business  de- 
mands a  more  frequent  perusal  of  all  accounts  incurred. 
This  is  also  true  of  the  relation  that  expenses  bear  to 
gross  profit,  this  being  a  matter  that  requires  attention 
both  daily  and  monthly. 

Expenses,  of  course,  govern  the  profits  made,  high 
prices  by  no  means  always  meaning  large  net  returns; 
and  therefore  it  will  be  seen  that,  in  tabulating  expenses 
and  in  making  provision  for  expected  charges,  careful- 
ness and  conservatism  in  preparing  reports  must  be  kept 
constantly  in  mind.  Carelessness  and  lax  methods  of 
procedure  would  not  only  be  misleading,  but  would  in  all 
probability  result  in  a  temporary  demoralization  of  ac- 
counts as  well. 

The  average  cooperage  concern  does  not  find  it  neces- 
sary to  have  a  daily  cost  statement  made  up  in  detail,  but 
when  reports  are  prepared  from  day  to  day  it  is  of  great 
value  to  specify  the  number  of  men  employed,  working 
hours  of  the  factory,  quantity  of  raw  material  received, 
production  of  the  plant  in  its  several  different  depart- 
ments, and  a  cash  summary,  together  with  general  remarks 
on  the  day's  work.  It  would  seem  to  any  one  unfamiliar 


344  COOPERAGE 

with  the  preparation  of  such  a  statement  that  a  large  force 
of  men  and  considerable  expenditure  would  be  required  in 
order  to  show  in  such  a  short  space  of  time  a  lucid,  clear 
review  of  the  operations  of  the  mill  or  factory  and  mis- 
cellaneous branches  of  the  plant.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
a  little  adjusting  and  rearranging  of  the  existing  methods 
of  accounting  and  a  proper  style  of  bookkeeping  are  the 
chief  factors.  A  certain  amount  of  extra  work  is  with- 
out doubt  requisite,  but  the  practical  and  monetary  value 
of  the  influence  obtained  in  handling  the  working  staff 
engaged  and  in  directing  the  use  of  capital  greatly  over- 
balances any  objections  on  that  score.  Furthermore, 
when  the  expenditure  question  is  considered,  actual  cost 
and  accomplishment  of  results  bear  no  comparison. 

The  monthly  report  must  be  considered  as  being  midway 
between  the  daily  and  yearly  summaries,  and  should  con- 
tain the  past  month's  statistics,  and,  equally  important, 
totals  covering  the  period  since  the  last  taking  of  inven- 
tory and  closing  of  books.  The  average  cost  sheet  should 
always  be  devised  in  as  compact  a  manner  as  possible, 
for,  owing  to  the  fact  of  a  larger  scope  being  contained 
in  a  monthly  than  in  a  daily  statement,  better  ideas  can 
be  gained  of  the  state  of  business  when  monthly  totals 
are  reviewed.  The  latter,  under  such  conditions,  may 
oftentimes  be  profitably  dealt  with  in  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent ways.  Sales  and  expense  tabulating  is  valuable, 
inasmuch  as  sizes  are  condensed  while  all  information 
is  retained.  Also,  and  in  this  the  necessity  for  being 
conservative  again  becomes  apparent,  approximate  profit 
to  date  may  be  shown.  In  preparing  all  mill  or  fac- 
tory reports,  no  matter  should  be  stated  that  does  not 
give  definite,  valuable,  complete  and  accurate  informa- 
tion. The  average  management  does  not  usually  wish 
to  measure  the  conditions  of  their  business  by  millimetres 
or  ounces,  but  desires  a  sort  of  bird's-eye  view  of  the 


MODERN  SHOP  MANAGEMENT     345 

most  prominent  features  of  plant  operation.  In  open- 
ing up  new  departments,  segregating  sales,  taking  in- 
ventories, classifying  and  arranging  expenses  and  costs, 
maintaining  balance  sheets,  and  other  methods  of  hand- 
ling business  too  numerous  to  mention,  no  cooperage 
manufacturer  or  like  concern  can  afford,  provided  that 
proper  and  necessary  attention  be  given,  to  be  without 
such  reliable  maps  with  which  systematically  to  pl&n  or 
project  future  courses  of  action. 

The  foregoing  remarks  will  suggest  to  the  manager 
numerous  details  having  a  bearing  on  the  subject,  which 
he  can  critically  investigate  for  himself  with  at  least  one 
good  result— that  if  he  is  unable  to  economize  (and  surely 
he  will  find  some  room  for  economy)  he  will  have  the  sat- 
isfaction of  knowing  that  nothing  has  been  overlooked  in 
the  administration  of  his  business.  Finally,  he  will  bear 
in  mind  the  necessity  of  providing,  as  far  as  possible, 
against  the  exigencies  of  strikes,  fluctuating  markets,  and 
any  risk  likely  to  bring  his  works  to  a  standstill,  and  he 
will  seek  to  cultivate  that  kindly  interest  in  his  employees 
which  goes  far  to  secure  faithful  and  profitable  service. 


SECTION   XII 


USEFUL  RULES  AND 
INFORMATION 


WEIGHTS  OF  SLACK  COOPERAGE  STOCK 

THE  following  weights  are  of  cooperage  stock,  taken 
from  different  sections  of  the  country,  and  in  the  usual 
shipping  conditions. 

The  heading  is  kiln-dried,  staves  are  thoroughly  air- 
dried,  and  the  hoops  are  in  the  usual  air-dried  condition 
for  shipment. 

Staves  that  are  kiln-dried  would  weigh  some  less,  but 
as  most  of  the  staves  are  shipped  in  an  air-dried  condi- 
tion, comparatively  few  being  shipped  kiln-dried,  the 
weights  are  for  air-dried  staves  only.  It  is  expected 
that  in  every  instance  staves  and  heading  will  be  shipped 
in  condition  fit  for  use  on  receipt  of  same. 

Mixed  timber  staves  will  vary,  because  there  are  no 
stave  rules  as  to  what  the  timber  shall  be  nor  of  what 
quantities  of  each  species,  but,  as  a  rule,  it  can  be  prob- 
ably safely  classified  the  same  as  gum  staves  for  weight. 

These  weights  are  sufficiently  high  to  warrant  the  rail- 
roads in  using  them  as  a  basis  in  adjusting  of  claims  for 
overweight.  Experience  has  proven  conclusively  that 
cooperage  stock  will  not  vary  over  two  per  cent,  in  weight 
for  the  same  species  of  timber,  and  that,  should  the  varia- 
tion be  greater  than  this,  the  stock  is  not  in  merchantable 
condition,  which  possible  variation  of  two  per  cent,  has 
been  taken  into  consideration  in  formulating  this  table 
of  weights. 

ELM  STAVES,   NORTH  OF  THE   OHIO   RIVER 

Length  Stave  How  Cut  Average  Width       Weight  per  1000 

Staves 

20  inch  cut  6  staves  to  2       inches  3l/2  inches  450  Ibs. 

22  inch  cut  6  staves  to  2       inches  3y2  inches  485  Ibs. 

24  inch  cut  6  staves  to  2       inches  3y2  inches  525  Ibs. 

20  inch  cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches  4       inches  570  Ibs. 

21  inch  cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches  4       inches  595  Ibs. 


350 

COOPERAGE 

Length  Stave 

How  Cut                               Average  Width 

Weight  per  1000 
Staves 

22       inch 

cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches           4       inches 

620  Ibs. 

24       inch 

cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches           4       inches 

670  Ibs. 

28%  inch 

cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches           4       inches 

780  Ibs. 

30       inch 

cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches           4       inches 

830  Ibs. 

32       inch 

cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches           4       inches 

885  Ibs. 

33       inch 

cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches           4       inches 

915  Ibs. 

34       inch 

cut  5  staves  to  1%  inches           4       inches 

945  Ibs. 

ELM  STAVES,  SOUTH  OF  THE  OHIO  RIVER 

Length  Stave 

How  Cut                         Average  Width 

Weight  per  1000 

Staves 

28  y2  inch 

5  staves  to  1%  inches           4  inches 

800  Ibs. 

30       inch 

5  staves  to  1%  inches           4  inches 

840  Ibs. 

32       inch 

5  staves  to  1%  inches           4  inches 

925  Ibs. 

34       inch 

5  staves  to  1%  inches           4  inches 

1,000  Ibs. 

HARDWOOD    STAVES 

Length  Stave 

How  Cut                          Average  Width 

Weight  per  1000 
Staves 

28y2  inch 

6  staves  to  2%  inches           4  inches 

950  Ibs. 

30       inch 

6  staves  to  2y8  inches           4  inches 

1,000  Ibs. 

GUM   STAVES 

Length  Stave 

How  Cut                             Average  Width 

Weight  per  1000 
Staves 

23%    inch 

5  staves  to  li%e   inches           4       inches 

600  Ibs. 

28  y2    inch 

5  staves  to  l1^   inches           4        inches 

800  Ibs. 

30       inch 

5  staves  to  l^e   inches           4        inches 

840  Ibs. 

32       inch 

5  staves  to  li%e   inches           4        inches 

925  Ibs. 

34       inch 

5  staves  to  l!%e   inches           4        inches 

1,000  Ibs. 

23y2    inch 

6  staves  to  2          inches           3%    inches 

500  Ibs. 

24        inch 

6  staves  to  2          inches           4        inches 

525  Ibs. 

36       inch 

5  staves  to  2          inches           4        inches 

1,100  Ibs. 

40       inch 

5  staves  to  ZI/IQ     inches           4       inches 

1,200  Ibs. 

COTTONWOOD    STAVES 

Length  Stave 

How  Cut                               Average  Width 

Weight  per  1000 
Staves 

28%  inch 

5  staves  to  li%6  inches             4  inches 

650  Ibs. 

COILED  ELM  HOOPS 

Length  Hoop 

Dimensions 

Weight  per  1000 
Hoops 

3  feet  8  inches 

1/4   inch  X  %   inch  X  li/4  inches 

275  Ibs. 

4  feet  0  inches 

^4    inch  X  %   inch  X  114  inches 

300  Ibs. 

4  feet  4  inches 

14    inch  X  %   inch  X  114  inches 

350  Ibs. 

5  feet  0  inches 

14    inch  X  y$   inch  X  1%  inches 

400  Ibs. 

5  feet  6  inches 

%6  inch  X  %6  inch  X  1%  inches 

460  Ibs. 

USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      351 


Length  Hoop 

6  feet  0  inches 
6  feet  6  inches 

6  feet  9  inches 

7  feet  0  inches 

7  feet  6  inches 

8  feet  0  inches 


Dimensions 


%6  inch  X  %e  inch  X  1%  inches 
%6  inch  X  %6  inch  X  1%  inches 
%6  inch  X  %6  inch  X  1%  inches 
%6  inch  X  %6  inch  X  1%  inches 
%6  inch  X  %6  inch  X  1%  inches 
%6  inch  X  %6  inch  X  1%  inches 


Weight  per  1000 
Hoops 

500  Ibs. 
545  Ibs. 
570  Ibs. 
600  Ibs. 
650  Ibs. 
700  Ibs. 


GUM   HEADING 


Diameter       Thickness         Weight  per  100 


15%  inches 
17%  inches 
18%  inches 
19%  inches 
20  inches 


%  inch  360  Ibs. 

%  inch  435  Ibs. 

%  inch  500  Ibs. 

%  inch  550  Ibs. 

%  inch  600  Ibs. 


Diameter 

21  inches 
22%  inches 
23%  inches. 
24  inches 


Thickness 


%  inch 
%  inch 
%  inch 


COTTONWOOD  HEADING 

Diameter  Thickness        Weight  per  100  Sets 

19 1/8  inches  i/2  inch  450  Ibs. 

BASSWOOD  HEADING 


Weight  per 

650  Ibs. 
725  Ibs. 
825  Ibs. 
875  Ibs. 


Diameter 

Thickness 

Weight  per 
100  Sets 

14%  inches 

1/2  inch 

240  Ibs. 

15      inches 

%  inch 

250  Ibs. 

15%  inches 

%  inch 

260  Ibs. 

Diameter  Thickness      Weight  per 

100  Sets 

16i/2  inches  %  inch  300  Ibs. 
17y8  inches  i/2  inch  340  Ibs. 
19y8  inches  i/2  inch  400  Ibs. 


HARDWOOD  HEADING 


Diameter 

14%  inches 

15  inches 
15%  inches 

16  inches 


Thickness 

%6  inch 
7/l6  inch 
%6  inch 
%e  inch 


Weight  per 
100  Sets 

310  Ibs. 
340  Ibs. 
360  Ibs. 
400  Ibs. 


Diameter 

16%  inches 
inches 
inches 

19%  inches 


Thickness      Weight  per 
100  Sets 

%6  inch  440  Ibs. 

%6  inch  500  Ibs. 

%6  inch  600  Ibs. 

%6  inch  675  Ibs. 


CAPACITY  OF  CARS 

WHEN  slack  cooperage  stock  is  bought  by  carload  lots, 
and  quantity  is  not  specifically  stated,  the  following  shall 
be  standard  car-lots,  as  recommended  by  the  Committee 
on  Grades  of  the  National  Slack  Cooperage  Manufac- 
turers '  Association.  The  idea  of  this  is  to  have  some 
guide  where  disputes  arise  through  shipping  enormous 
carloads  on  a  falling  market,  and  miniature  carloads  on 


352 


COOPERAGE 


a  rising  one ;  but  in  any  case  there  must  be  stock  enough 
in  the  car  to  make  a  minimum  carload  weight,  as  required 
by  the  railroads. 


STAVES 


From  18  inches  to  24  inches       .          .          .          . 

75,000  staves 

From  24  inches  to  26  inches       ..... 

65,000  staves 

From  26  inches  to  30  inches       ..... 

55,000  staves 

From  30  inches  to  34  inches       ..... 

40,000  staves 

From  34  inches  to  40  inches       ..... 

35  000  staves 

COILED  ELM  HOOPS 

From  3  feet  6  inches  to  4  feet  4  inches 

100,000  hoops 

From  4  feet  4  inches  to  5  feet  0  inches 

80,000  hoops 

From  5  feet  0  inches  to  5  feet  6  inches 

60,000  hoops 

From  .5  feet  6  inches  to  6  feet  9  inches 

50,000  hoops 

From  6  feet  9  inches  to  7  feet  6  inches       .      .    . 

48,000  hoops 

From  7  feet  6  inches  to  8  feet  6  inches 

45,000  hoops 

HARDWOOD  HEADING 

From  11       inches  to  12%  inches          .... 

18,000  sets 

From  121/2  inches  to  14%  inches          .... 

15,000  sets 

From  14%  inches  to  15%  inches          .... 

10,000  sets 

From  15%  inches  to  16%  inches          . 

9,000  sets 

From  1  6  %  inches     to  17%  inches          .... 

8,000  sets 

From  17%  inches  to  18%  inches          .... 

7,000  sets 

From  18%  inches  to  19%  inches           .... 

6500  sets 

From  19%  inches  to  21       inches          .... 

6,000  sets 

From  21       inches  to  24       inches          .... 

3,500  sets 

PINE   AND   SOFTWOOD  HEADING 

From  11       inches  to  12%  inches          .... 

20,000  sets 

From  12%  inches  to  14%  inches          .... 

18,000  sets 

From  14%  inches  to  15%  inches          .... 

12,000  sets 

From  15%  inches  to  16%  inches          .          . 

11,000  sets 

From  16%  inches  to  17%  inches          .... 

10,000  sets 

From  17%  inches  to  18%  inches          .... 

9,000  sets 

From  ISi/i  inches  to  19%  inches          .... 

7,500  sets 

From  19%  inches  to  21       inches          .... 

7,000  sets 

From  21       inches  to  24       inches          .... 

4,000  sets 

USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      353 

LEGAL  FRUIT  BARREL  IN  NEW  YORK 

STATE 

A  KECENT  act  of  the  New  York  Legislature  has  fixed 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  legal  fruit  barrel  by  adding 
to  Article  B  of  the  agriculture  law,  Section  188,  which 
says  that  a  fruit  barrel  shall  equal  100  quarts,  12%  pecks, 
or  6,720  cubic  inches,  dry  measure,  and  shall  be  of  di- 
mensions as  follows :  Head  diameter,  17%  inches ;  length 
of  stave,  28%  inches ;  and  the  bilge  not  less  than  64  inches, 
outside  measurement.  If  the  barrel  is  made  straight  up 
and  down,  or  without  any  bilge,  it  shall  contain  the  same 
number  of  cubic  inches  as  is  described  in  the  foregoing. 
Any  person  or  party  making,  manufacturing,  or  causing 
to  be  made  or  manufactured  barrels  for  use  in  the  sale 
of  apples,  pears,  quinces,  or  any  other  fruit,  or  selling 
such  fruit  in  barrels  containing  less  than  is  above  speci- 
fied, shall  be  compelled  to  brand  such  barrels,  "upon 
each  end  and  upon  the  side, ' '  with  the  conspicuous  letters 
at  least  one  and  one-half  inches  in  length, ' l  Short  barrel. ' ' 
The  penalty  for  violation  is  not  stated  in  the  section,  but 
it  may  be  provided  for  in  the  general  law. 

LEGAL   FRUIT   BARREL   IN   THE   STATE 
OF  INDIANA 

THE  legal  fruit  barrel  in  the  State  of  Indiana  shall  not 
contain  less  than  12  pecks,  96  quarts,  or  6,451  cubic  inches, 
an  act  having  been  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  that 
State  to  that  effect. 

NOTES   ON   BELTING 

A  BELT  transmits  power  solely  through  frictional  con- 
tact with  the  surface  of  the  pulley. 

The  lower  side  of  the  belt  should  be  made  the  driving 
side  when  possible,  as  the  arc  of  contact  is  thereby  in- 


354  COOPEEAGE 

creased  by  the  sagging  of  the  slack  side.  By  this  method 
belts  may  be  run  much  slacker  and  with  less  strain  or 
friction  on  the  bearings  than  otherwise,  and  a  greater 
horsepower  transmitted. 

Increase  of  power  will  be  obtained  by  increasing  the 
size  of  the  pulleys,  the  same  ratio  being  retained. 

Wide  belts  are  less  effective  per  unit  of  sectional  area 
than  narrow  belts,  and  long  belt  drives  are  more  effective 
than  short  ones. 

The  proportion  between  the  diameters  of  two  pulleys 
working  together  should  not  exceed  6  to  1. 

Convexity  or  crown  of  pulleys  should  equal  Vs  to  }4  inch 
in  the  width  up  to  12  inches  wide ;  for  larger  sizes,  %  to  % 
inch  per  foot  of  width. 

The  convexity  or  crown  of  driving  and  driven  pulleys 
should  be  alike  in  amount. 

The  pulley  always  should  be  from  %  to  1%  inches  wider 
than  the  belt,  according  to  the  width  of  face. 

The  driving  pulley  is  called  the  "driver,"  and  the 
driven  pulley  is  called  the  "driven"  or  follower. 

The  horsepower  of  a  belt  equals  velocity  in  feet  per 
minute,  multiplied  by  the  width,  and  this  sum  divided 
by  1,000. 

A  1-inch  single  belt,  moving  at  1,000  feet  per  minute, 
equals  one  horsepower. 

A  1-inch  double  belt,  moving  at  700  feet  per  minute, 
equals  one  horsepower. 

Oak-tanned  leather  belts  make  the  best  belts. 

When  belts  are  run  with  the  hair  side  (smooth  side) 
next  to  the  pulley  they  have  greater  adhesion  and  trans- 
mit more  power. 

The  ordinary  thickness  of  leather  belts  is  %e  inch,  and 
their  weight  is  about  60  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Ordinarily  four-ply  cotton  belting  is  considered  equiva- 
lent to  single-leather  belting. 


USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      355 

The  average  breaking  strain  of  single-leather  belt  is 
530  pounds  per  inch  in  width;  three-ply  rubber  belt,  600 
pounds  per  inch  in  width. 


"SPEED  OF  BELTS" 


Belts  have  been  employed  running  over  5,800  feet  per 
minute.  Nothing,  however,  is  gained  by  running  belts 
much  over  4,000  feet  per  minute.  About  3,500  feet  per 
minute  for  main  belts  is  considered  good  practice. 

The  life  of  a  belt  may  be  prolonged  and  its  driving 
power  increased  by  keeping  it  in  good  working  order. 

"To  CLEAN  BELTS"  which  are  dirty  from  drop  oil  and 
dust,  first  wash  the  belts  with  warm  water  and  soap, 
using  a  sharp,  stiff  brush,  and  while  still  moist  rub  them 
with  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac,  which  saponifies  the  oil 
in  them.  Immediately  thereafter  the  belt  must  be  rinsed 
well  with  lukewarm  water  and  then  dried  with  sufficient 
tension.  While  they  are  still  moist  the  belts  are  to  be 
rubbed  well  on  the  inside  and  less  on  the  outside  with 
the  following:  2  pounds  %  ounce  India  rubber,  heated  to 
122°  Fahr.  and  mixed  with  2  pounds  %  ounce  rectified  tur- 
pentine oil.  After  the  solution  is  complete,  27  ounces  of 
bright  resin  are  added,  and  when  this  is  dissolved  add 
26%  ounces  of  yellow  wax.  This  mixture,  by  diligent 
stirring,  is  mixed  with  6  pounds  10  ounces  of  fish  oil  and 
2  pounds  12  ounces  of  tallow  previously  dissolved  in  the 
fish  oil.  In  the  further  treatment  of  the  belt,  rub  the 
inside  only,  and  the  outside  only  at  the  first  treatment,  as 
stated.  This  belt  dressing,  if  properly  mixed  and  applied, 
will  prevent  dragging  of  the  belt  and  imparts  elasticity 
to  it. 

One  of  the  simplest  and  best  belt  dressings  is  made 
from  1  part  neatsfoot  oil  and  3  parts  castor  oil. 

The  best  joint  for  a  belt  is  the  cemented  joint.    This 


356  COOPERAGE 

requires  time  and  patience  to  shave  down  properly  and 
about  five  hours  to  set. 

The  worst  joint  is  the  ordinary  laced  joint.  It  has 
the  merit  of  being  made  quickly.  Another  method  is 
the  " hinge  plan."  The  important  item  in  this  plan  is 
good  lace  leather,  which  should  be  strong,  well  tanned, 
and  uniform  in  thickness. 

The  annealed  nickel  wire  makes  an  excellent  belt  lac- 
ing, but  care  must  be  exercised  in  inserting  it,  for  if  the 
wire  is  crossed  or  lapped  over  one  another  on  the  pulley 
side  the  lacing  will  not  last  long.  The  composition  wire 
made  especially  for  this  purpose  is  better  suited  for 
lacing  than  the  annealed  nickel  wire. 

In  applying,  a  single  row  of  holes  is  used,  the  holes 
being  no  farther  from  the  end  than  the  thickness  of  the 
belt,  and  %  inch  apart,  and  should  be  cut  with  a  %2-inch 
belt  punch.  Cut  a  depression  on  inside  of  belt  for  the 
wire,  so  that  it  will  be  clear  of  face  of  pulley.  Commence 
lacing  at  the  centre  by  passing  the  ends  of  the  wire 
through  the  two  centre  holes  to  the  pulley  side  of  the 
belt.  The  lacing  should  be  double  on  the  pulley  side; 
then  lace  each  way  to  the  side,  double-lacing  on  the  inside, 
drawing  up  tightly  all  the  time  without  kinks  or  crossing 
the  wire.  When  finished,  flatten  down  with  a  hammer  on 
the  pulley  face. 

A  properly  wire-laced  joint  makes  the  belt  appear  end- 
less, as  there  is  no  jar  when  tjie  joint  passes  over  the 
pulley. 

EULES  FOR  CALCULATING  SPEED  OF  PULLEYS 

"To  determine  the  diameter  of  the  driver,"  the  diam- 
eter of  the  driven  and  its  revolutions,  as  also  revolutions 
of  driver  being  given. 

Diam.  of  driven  X  revolutions  of  driven  __  D«  am 
Revolutions  of  driver 


USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      357 

"To  determine  the  diameter  of  the  driven,"  the  revo- 
lutions of  the  driven  and  the  diameter  and  revolutions  of 
the  driver  being  given. 

Diam.  of  driver  X  revolutions  of  driver 


Revolutions  of  driven 


—  Diam  of  driven. 


"To  determine  the  revolutions  of  the  driver, "  the  di- 
ameter and  revolutions  of  the  driven  and  the  diameter 
of  the  driver  being  given. 

Diam.  of  driven  X  revolutions  of  driven  _  Revolutions 
Diam.  of  driver  ~~  of  driver. 

"To  determine  the  revolutions  of  the  driven,"  the  di- 
ameter and  revolutions  of  the  driver  and  diameter  of  the 
driven  being  given. 

Diam.  of  driver  X  revolutions  of  driver  _  Revolutions 
Diam.  of  driven  ~~  of  driven. 

If  the  number  of  teeth  in  gears  is  used  instead  of  diam- 
eter in  these  calculations,  number  of  teeth  must  be  sub- 
stituted whenever  diameter  occurs. 

POWER    OF    BELTING 

To  calculate  roughly  the  power  of  belts,  the  following 
rules  may  be  used: 

To  determine  the  "horsepower"  transmitted  of  a 
single-leather  belt. 

t 

Width  of  belt  in  in.  X  speed  in  ft.  per  min.  _  Horsepower 
"~900~  ~  transmitted. 

To  determine  the  "proper  width"  of  a  single-leather 
belt  to  transmit  a  given  horsepower. 

900  X  horsepower 

a 5 — PIT.-  —. — =  Proper  width  of  belt. 

Speed  of  belt  in  ft.  per  mm. 


358 


COOPERAGE 


HORSE-POWER  OF  LEATHER  BELTS  PER  INCH  OF  WIDTH 


VELOCITY  op 
BELT  IN  FEET 
PER  MINUTE  I 

BEST  OAK  TANNED  BELTS 

BEST  LINK  OR  CHAIN  BELTS 

SINGLE 
BELTS 

LIGHT 
DOUBLE 
BELTS 

HEAVY 
DOUBLE 
BELTS 

1 
5 

W 
o 
i 

5 

1 
5 

| 
£ 

W 
o 

g 

5 

1  INCH 

100 

0.15 

0.21 

0.27 

0.13 

0.15 

0.17 

0.20 

0.24 

0.27 

200 

0.30 

0.42 

0.55 

0.25 

0.29 

0.35 

0.40 

0.47 

0.55 

300 

0.45 

0.64 

0.82 

0.38 

0.44 

0.52 

0.60 

0.71 

0.82 

400 

0.61 

0.85 

1.09 

0.51 

0.58 

0.69 

0.80 

0.95 

1.09 

500 

0.76 

1.06 

1.36 

0.64 

0.73 

0.86 

1.00 

1.18 

1.36 

600 

0.91 

1.27 

1.64 

0.76 

0.87 

1.04 

1.20 

1.42 

1.64 

700 

1.06 

1.49 

1.91 

0.89 

1.02 

1.21 

1.40 

1.65 

1.91 

800 

1.21 

1.70 

2.18 

0.92 

1.16 

1.38 

1.60 

1.83 

2.18 

900 

1.36 

1.91 

2.45 

1.05 

1.31 

1.55 

1.80 

2.13 

2.45 

1000 

1.51 

2.12 

2.73 

1.27 

1.45 

1.73 

2.00 

2.36 

2.73 

1100 

1.67 

2.33 

3.00 

1.40 

1.60 

1.90 

2.20 

2.60 

3.00 

1200 

1.82 

2.55 

3.27 

1.53 

1.75 

2.07 

2.40 

2.84 

3.27 

1300 

1.97 

2.76 

3.55 

1.65 

1.89 

2.25 

2.60 

3.07 

3.55 

1400 

2.12 

2.97 

3.82 

1.78 

2.04 

2.42 

2.80 

3.31 

3.82 

1500 

2.27 

3.18 

4.09 

1.91 

2.18 

2.59 

3.00 

3.55 

4.09 

1600 

2.42 

3.39 

4.36 

2.04 

2.33 

2.76 

3.20 

3.78 

4.36 

1700 

2.58 

3.61 

4.64 

2.16 

2.47 

2.94 

3.40 

4.02 

4.64 

1800 

2.73 

3.82 

4.91 

2.29 

2.62 

3.11 

3.60 

4.25 

4.91 

1900 

2.88 

4.03 

5.18 

2.42 

2.76 

3.28 

3.80 

4.49 

5.18 

2000 

3.03 

4.24 

5.45 

2.55 

2.91 

3.45 

4.00 

4.73 

5.45 

2100 

3.18 

4.45 

5.73 

2.67 

3.05 

3.63 

4.20 

4.96 

5.73 

2200 

3.33 

4.67 

6.00 

2.80 

3.20 

3.80 

4.40 

5.20 

6.00 

2300 

3.49 

4.88 

6.27 

2.93 

3.35 

3.97 

4.60 

5.44 

6.27 

2400 

3.64 

5.09 

6.55 

3.05 

3.49 

4.15 

4.80 

5.67 

6.55 

2500 

3.79 

5.30 

6.82 

3.18 

3.64 

4.32 

5.00 

5.91 

6.82 

2600 

3.94 

5.52 

7.09 

3.24 

3.78 

4.49 

5.20 

6.15 

7.03 

2700 

4.09 

5.73 

7.36 

3.28 

3.85 

4.66 

5.40 

6.38 

7.36 

2800 

4.24 

5.94 

7.64 

3.31 

3.86 

4.73 

5.60 

6.62 

7.64 

2900 

4.39 

6.15 

7.91 

3.32 

3.87 

4.?'8 

5.80 

6.85 

7.91 

3000 

4.50 

6.36 

8.18 

3.31 

3.86 

4.75 

5.97 

7.03 

8.18 

3100 

4.60 

6.58 

8.45 

3.30 

3.85 

4.73 

5.96 

7.33 

8.45 

3200 

4.69 

6.79 

8.70 

3.28 

3.82 

4.71 

5.94 

7.37 

8.73 

3300 

4.77 

7.00 

8.86 

3.24 

3.77 

4.70 

5.92 

7.35 

8.88 

3400 

4.84 

7.21 

8.96 

3.19 

3.71 

4.64 

5.87 

7.32 

8.83 

3500 

4.90 

7.31 

9.06 

3.13 

3.61 

4.50 

5.78 

7.26 

8.80 

3600 

4.95 

7.40 

9.16 

3.05 

3.50 

4.37 

5.67 

7.16 

8.73 

3700 

4.99 

7.48 

9.24 

2.96 

3.39 

4.26 

5.55 

7.01 

8.58 

3800 

5.03 

7:54 

9.29 

2.84 

3.28 

4.15 

5.41 

6.87 

8.41 

3900 

5.06 

7.60 

9.34 

2.72 

3.13 

4.02 

5.20 

6.70 

8.27 

4000 

5.08 

7.64 

9.37 

2.58 

2.95 

3.84 

5.01 

6.48 

8.04 

4200 

5.10 

7.70 

9.38 

2.27 

2.55 

3.37 

4.52 

5.98 

7.51 

4500 

5.07 

7.69 

9.27 

1.64 

1.77 

2.45 

3.68 

5.05 

6.55 

5000 

4.82 

7.42 

8.75 

0.42 

0.15 

0.61 

1.55 

2.78 

4.32 

USEFUL  EULES  AND  INFORMATION      359 

To  determine  the  "proper  speed "  a  single-leather  belt 
should  travel  to  transmit  a  given  horsepower. 

900  X  horsepower  to  be  transmitted      Proper  speed 
Width  of  belt  in  inches  "  in  ft.  per  min. 

To  determine  "the  horsepower"  transmitted  of  a  dou- 
ble-leather belt. 

Width  of  belt  in  in.  X  speed  in  ft.  per  min.  _  Horsepower 
630  ~  transmitted. 

To  determine  the  "proper  width "  of  a  double-leather 
belt  to  transmit  a  given  horsepower. 

630  X  horsepower  .,,,     „,    ,, 

=  Proper  width  of  belt. 


Speed  of  belt  in  ft.  per  min. 

To  determine  the  "proper  speed"  a  double-leather  belt 
should  travel  to  transmit  a  given  horsepower. 

630  X  horsepower  to  be  transmitted  _  Proper  speed 
Width  of  belt  in  inches  ~~  in  ft.  per  min. 

These  rules  are  simple  'calculations  and  give  good, 
practical  results  where  there  is  no  great  inequality  in 
the  diameters  of  the  pulleys.  To  find  the  "speed  of  a 
belt  in  feed  per  minute,"  multiply  the  diameter  of  the 
pulley  by  3.1416.  This  will  give  you  the  circumference 
in  inches.  Then  multiply  this  by  the  number  of  revo- 
lutions the  pulley  makes  per  minute,  and  divide  the 
product  by  12.  This  will  give  you  the  speed  of  the  belt 
in  feet  per  minute. 

The  "working  tension"  of  a  leather  belt  is  generally 
figured  as  being  from  70  to  150  pounds  per  inch  of  width. 

BABBITT  METAL  AND  BABBITTING 

Nearly  half  a  century  ago  Isaac  Babbitt,  of  Taunton, 
Mass.,  originated  the  alloy  which  has  since  been  known 


360  COOPEEAGE 

as  Babbitt  metal.  It  is  highly  valued  for  its  anti-friction 
qualities  as  compared  with  other  metals.  Isaac  Babbitt 
was  a  goldsmith  by  trade,  and  made  the  first  Britannia 
ware  that  was  produced  in  this  country.  He  was  honored 
with  a  gold  medal  for  his  discovery  of  his  anti-friction 
alloy  and  was  also  presented  with  $20,000  by  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States. 

Below   are   several   formulas   for   preparing  Babbitt 
metal  for  the  different  uses  as  specified: 

1.  Copper          .         .         •         •         •          .10  parts 
Tin        .         .         .  .         .         .72  parts 

Antimony      ......     18  parts 

Total         .         .          .          .100  parts 
This   alloy  is   recommended  for   all  high-speed  ma- 
chinery journal  boxes. 

2.  Copper          .         .         .         .         .         .1  part 

Tin 48  parts 

Antimony 5  parts 

Lead '2  parts 

Total         .         .         .         .56  parts 
This  alloy  is  more  economical  than  No.  1,  and  has  a 
more  greasy  touch  than  the  first  named,  but  is  not  so  de- 
sirable for  high-speed  machinery. 

3.  Lead 32  parts 

Zinc 20  parts 

Antimony      .         .         .         .         .         .48  parts 

Total         ....   100  parts 
This  alloy  will  resist  a  rapid  friction,  but  it  is  not 
suited  for  high-speed  machinery. 

4.  Lead     ......  .90  parts 

Antimony      .         .         .         .         .         .  100  parts 

Total  .         .  190  parts 


USEFUL  EULES  AND  INFORMATION      361 

This  is  a  very  cheap  alloy,  suitable  only  for  slow-mov- 
ing machinery,  etc. 

5.  Copper          .         .         .         ,         .         .     77  parts 
Tin       .         v         .         .         .         .         .       8  parts 
Lead    ..         .         .        :.••"        .        ..         .     15  parts 
Phosphorus  .         .         .         ..         .       Trace 

Total         .        ...         .100  parts 
This  alloy  is  exclusively  for  heavy  machinery  bearings. 

6.  Copper          .        ......      .  ^       3  parts 

Tin      ..         .         .         .         .         .         .89  parts 

Antimony      .         .         .         .         .         .       8  parts 

Total         .         .         .         .   100  parts 

This  is  the  original  Babbitt  metal,  is  not  very  ex- 
pensive, and  can  be  used  for  all  classes  of  machinery 
bearings  where  weight  is  not  excessive. 

In  babbitting  bearings  it  is  always  advisable  to  put 
a  piece  of  rosin  into  the  Babbitt  metal  before  pouring. 
After  putting  in  the  rosin,  stir  the  metal  thoroughly  with 
a  pine  stick,  then  skim  off  any  refuse  or  other  matter. 
It  makes  poor  Babbitt  metal  run  better  and  improves  it, 
and  especially  when  metal  from  old  bearings  is  used. 
It  also  has  a  tendency  to  prevent  blowing  when  pouring 
into  damp  boxes.  Babbitt  heated  just  hot  enough  to 
light  a  pine  stick  will  run  in  places  with  the  rosin  in  where 
without  it  it  would  not. 

GLUE    TO    EESIST    MOISTUEE 

Dissolve  1  pound  of  clean  glue  in  2  quarts  of  skimmed 
milk. 

EECEIPTS   FOE   SOLDEEING   FLUIDS 

1.  One  dram  each  of  powdered  copperas,  borax,  and 
prussiate  of  potash;  %  ounce  powdered  sal-ammoniac; 
3%  ounces  fluid  muriatic  acid.  Let  the  mixture  cut  all 


362  COOPERAGE 

the  zinc  it  will,  and  then  dilute  with  one  pint  of  water. 
This  is  something  extra  for  soldering  the  raw  edges  of 
tin  or  galvanized  iron.  The  above  quantity  of  fluid  will 
cost  about  fifteen  cents. 

2.  Add  granulated  zinc  or  zinc  scraps  to  2  fluid  ounces 
of  muriatic  acid,  until  hydrogen  ceases  to  be  given  off; 
add  1  teaspoonful  of  ammonium  chloride;  then  shake 
well  and  add  2  fluid  ounces  of  water. 

3.  A  very  good  fluid  for  soldering  bright  tin  can  be 
made  by  simply  adding  sweet  oil  to  well-pounded  rosin. 
It  was  used  years  ago  by  the  tinners  of  Great  Britain 
for  soldering  planished  ware  made  in  those  days,  and  is 
excellent  for  soldering  fine  work,  silver  and  plated  ware. 
It  can  be  wiped  off  with  a  clean  rag  and  leaves  no  stain 
or  scratches. 

USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION  ON 

WATER 

DOUBLING  the  diameter  of  a  pipe  increases  its  capacity 
four  times. 

Friction  of  liquids  in  pipes  increases  as  the  square  of 
the  velocity. 

The  mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  usually  esti- 
mated at  14.7  pounds  per  square  inch,  so  that  with  a 
perfect  vacuum  it  will  sustain  a  column  of  mercury  29.9 
inches  or  a  column  of  water  33.9  feet  high  at  sea  level. 

"To  find  the  pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch"  of 
a  column  of  water,  multiply  the  height  of  the  column  by 
.434.  Approximately,  we  say  that  every  foot  of  eleva- 
tion is  equal  to  %  pound  pressure  per  square  inch;  this 
allows  for  ordinary  friction. 

"To  find  the  diameter  of  a  pump  cylinder"  necessary 
to  move  a  given  quantity  of  water  per  minute  (100  feet 
of  piston  being  the  standard  of  speed),  divide  the  number 


USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      363 

of  gallons  by  4,  then  extract  the  square  root,  and  the 
product  will  be  the  diameter  in  inches  of  the  pump 
cylinder. 

' '  To  find  the  quantity  of  water  elevated  in  one  minute, ' ' 
running;  at  100  feet  of  piston  speed  per  minute,  square 
the  diameter  of  the  water  cylinder  in  inches  and  multiply 
by  4. 

Example:  Capacity  of  a  5-inch  cylinder  is  desired. 
The  square  of  the  diameter  (5  inches)  is  25,  which  multi- 
plied by  4,  gives  100,  which  is  approximately  the  number 
of  gallons  elevated  per  minute. 

"To  find  the  horsepower  necessary  to  elevate  water" 
to  a  given  height,  multiply  the  weight  of  the  water  ele- 
vated per  minute  in  pounds  by  the  height  in  feet,  and 
divide  the  product  by  33,000.  (An  allowance  should  be 
added  for  water  friction  and  a  further  allowance  for  loss 
in  steam  cylinder,  say  from  20  to  30^  per  cent.) 

"The  area  of  the  steam  piston "  multiplied  by  the 
steam  pressure  gives  the  total  amount  of  pressure  that 
can  be  exerted. 

"The  area  of  water  piston"  multiplied  by  the  pressure 
of  the  water  per  square  inch  gives  the  resistance.  A  mar- 
gin must  be  made  between  the  power  and  the  resistance 
to  move  the  pistons  at  the  required  speed — say,  from 
20  to  40  per  cent.,  according  to  speed  and  other  condi- 
tions. 

"To  find  the  capacity  of  a  pump  cylinder"  in  gallons, 
multiply  the  area  in  inches  by  the  length  of  stroke  in 
inches.  This  will  give  the  total  number  of  cubic  inches. 
Divide  this  amount  by  231  (which  is  the  cubic  contents 
of  a  U.  S.  gallon  in  inches),  and  the  product  is  the 
capacity  in  gallons. 

"To  find  the  capacity  of  a  barrel"  in  gallons,  to  the 
head  diameter  add  two-thirds  of  the  difference  between 
the  head  and  the  bilge  diameters,  and  multiply  the  area 


364  COOPEBAGE 

by  the  inside  length  in  inches ;  divide  this  amount  by  231, 
and  the  product  is  the  capacity  in  U.  S.  gallons. 

USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION  ON 

STEAM 

ONE  cubic  inch  of  water  evaporated  under  ordinary 
atmospheric  pressure  is  converted  into  one  cubic  foot 
of  steam  (approximately). 

The  specific  gravity  of  steam  (at  atmospheric  pres- 
sure) is  .411  that  of  air  at  34°  Fahr.,  and  .0006  that  of 
water  at  the  same  temperature. 

27,222  cubic  feet  of  steam  weigh  one  pound. 

13,817  cubic  feet  of  air  weigh  one  pound. 

Locomotives  average  a  consumption  of  3,000  gallons 
of  water  per  100  miles  run. 

The  best-designed  boilers,  well  set,  with  good  draft 
and  skilful  firing  will  evaporate  7  to  10  pounds  of  water 
per  pound  of  first-class  coal. 

In  calculating  horsepower  of  tubular  or  flue  boilers, 
consider  15  square  feet  of  heating  surface  equivalent  to 
one  nominal  horsepower. 

On  one  square  foot  of  grate  can  be  burned  on  an 
average  of  from  10  to  12  pounds  of  hard  coal,  or  18 
to  20  pounds  of  soft  coal  per  hour  with  natural  draft. 
With  forced  draft  nearly  double  these  amounts  can  be 
burned. 

Steam  engines,  in  economy,  vary  from  14  to  60  pounds 
of  feed  water,  and  from  IV2  to  7  pounds  of  coal  per  hour 
per  indicated  horsepower. 

Condensing  engines  require  from  20  to  30  gallons 
of  water  at  an  average  low  temperature  to  condense 
the  steam  represented  by  every  gallon  of  water 
evaporated  in  the  boilers,  supplying  the  engine— 
approximately  for  most  engines,  we  say,  from  1  to  1% 


USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      365 

gallons  condensing  water  per  minute  per  indicated  horse- 
power. 

Surface  condensers  should  have  about  2  square  feet 
of  tube  (cooling)  surface  per  horsepower  for  a  compound 
steam  engine.  Ordinary  engines  will  require  more  sur- 
face, according  to  their  economy  in  the  use  of  steam.  It 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  place  air  pumps  below  con- 
densers to  get  satisfactory  results. 


KATIO  OF   VACUUM   TO  TEMPEKATURE    (FAHRENHEIT?)    OF   FEED 

WATER 


00  inches  vacuum  —  212° 
1 1  inches  vacuum  =  190° 
18  inches  vacuum  =  170° 
22l/2  inches  vacuum  =  150° 


25  inches  vacuum  =  135° 
27%  inches  vacuum  =  112° 
28%  inches  vacuum  =  92° 
29  inches  vacuum  =  72° 


29%  inches  vacuum  =  52° 

25  inches  of  vacuum  is  usually  considered  the  standard 
point  of  efficiency,  the  condenser  and  air  pump  being  well 
proportioned. 


DUTY   OF   STEAM   ENGINES    (HIGH   GRADE) 


Pounds  of 

Cost  per 

TYPE  OF  ENGINE 

Temper- 
ature of 
Feed 
Water 

Water 
Evapo- 
rated per 
Pound  of 
Cumber- 

Pounds of 
Steam  per 
I.  H.  P. 
Used  per 
Hour 

Pounds  of 
Cumber- 
land Coal 
Used  per 
I.  H.  P. 

I.  H.  P.  per 
Hour  Sup- 
posing 
Coal  to  be 
$6.00  per 

land  Coal 

per  Hour 

Ton 

Non  -condensing 

210° 

10.5 

29.0 

2.75 

$0.0073 

Condensing                   .  .  . 

100° 

9.4 

20.0 

2.12 

0.0056 

Compound  Jacketed  
Triple  Expansion  Jacketed 

100° 
100° 

9.4 
9.4 

17.0 
13.6 

1.81 
1.44 

0.0045 
0.0036 

The  effect  of  a  good  condenser  and  air  pump  should 
be  to  make  available  about  10  pounds  more  mean  effect- 


366  COOPERAGE 

ive  pressure  with  the  same  terminal  pressure,  or  to  give 
the  same  mean  effective  pressure  with  a  correspondingly 
less  terminal  pressure.  When  the  load  on  the  engine 
requires  20  pounds  mean  effective  pressure,  the  con- 
denser does  half  the  work;  at  30  pounds,  one-third  of 
the  work;  at  40  pounds,  one-fourth,  etc.  It  is  safe  to 
assume  that  practically  the  condenser  will  save  from 
one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  fuel,  and  can  be  applied 
to  any  style  engine,  either  cut-off  or  throttling,  where  a 
sufficient  supply  of  water  is  available. 

WEIGHT  AND  COMPARATIVE  FUEL  VALUE   OF   WOOD 

One  cord  air-dried: 

Hickory  weighs  about  4,500  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about  2,000  Ibs.  coal. 
Hard  maple  weighs  about  4,500  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about  2,000  Ibs.  coal. 
White  oak  weighs  about  3,850  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about  1,715  Ibs.  coal. 
Red  oak  weighs  about  3,250  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about  1,450  Ibs.  coal. 
Beech  weighs  about  3,250  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about  1,450  Ibs.  coal. 

Poplar  weighs  about  2,350  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about  1,050  Ibs.  coal. 

Chestnut  weighs  about  2,350  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about  1,050  Ibs.  coal. 
Elm  weighs  about  2,350  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about  1,050  Ibs.  coal. 

Average  pine  weighs  about  2,000  Ibs.  and  is  equal  to  about     925  Ibs.  coal. 

From  the  above  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  2%  pounds 
of  dry  wood  is  equal  to  1  pound  average  quality  of  soft 
coal,  and  that  the  full  value  of  the  same  weight  of  differ- 
ent woods  is  very  nearly  the  same;  that  is,  a  pound  of 
hickory  is  worth  no  more  for  fuel  than  a  pound  of  pine, 
assuming  both  to  be  dry.  It  is  important  that  the  wood 
be  dry,  as  each  10  per  cent,  of  water  or  moisture  in  wood 
will  detract  about  12  per  cent,  from  its  value  as  fuel. 

TO  PLACE  AN  ENGINE  ON  THE  DEAD  CENTRE 

To  place  an  engine  on  its  dead  centre,  bring  the  cross- 
head  to  within  about  half  an  inch  of  the  end  of  its  travel. 
Take  a  pair  of  dividers  and  from  a  point  on  the  guides 


USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      367 

strike  an  arc  of  a  circle  on  the  cross-head,  and  with  the 
engine  in  the  same  position,  tram  from  a  point  on  the 
floor  to  the  rim  of  the  wheel;  then  move  the  engine  in 
the  direction  it  is  to  run  until  the  cross-head  has  passed 
the  end  of  its  travel  and  returned  to  a  point  where  the 
dividers  will  coincide  with  the  mark  already  made  on 
the  cross-head.  Make  another  tram  mark  on  the  rim  of 
the  flywheel,  and  midway  between  these  two  marks  make 
a  centre  punch  mark  for  a  "dead-centre  mark."  Bring 
the  flywheel  to  a  point,  that  the  point  of  the  tram  will 
just  enter  the  dead-centre  mark,  and  the  engine  is  on 
its  exact  centre  at  that  end.  Then  repeat  the  operation 
on  the  other  end.  In  all  cases  move  the  engine  in  the 
direction  it  is  to  run,  and  if  moved  past  the  dead-centre 
mark  it  must  be  backed  up  far  enough  to  take  up  the  lost 
motion  before  reaching  the  mark  again. 


HORSEPOWER   OF   AN  ENGINE 

An  easy  method  of  figuring  the  horsepower  of  an  en- 
gine will  be  found  in  the  following  formula: 

Diam.2  X  stroke  X  revs.X  M.  E.  P.  _   TT  p 
250,000 

This  is  explained  as  follows:  Multiply  the  diameter 
of  the  piston  in  inches  by  its  diameter  (or,  in  other  words, 
square  the  diameter) ;  multiply  this  product  by  the  length 
of  the  stroke  in  inches ;  then  multiply  by  the  number  of 
strokes  per  minute  and  this  product  by  the  mean  effective 
pressure  in  pounds  per  square  inch  on  the  piston  during 
one  stroke.  Dividing  this  total  by  250,000  will  give  you 
the  horsepower.  The  result  is  accurate  to  within  2  per 
cent. 

Still  another  easy  method  is  as  follows :   Multiply  the 


368 


COOPEBAGE 


diameter  of  the  piston  in  inches  by  itself,  then  by  .4,  then 
by  the  mean  effective  pressure,  then  by  the  number  of 
strokes  per  minute,  and  point  off  six  places.  The  result 
will  be  the  horsepower  to  within  2  per  cent. 

If  an  indicator  card  cannot  be  obtained,  a  fair  approx- 
imation to  the  M.  E.  P.  may  be  obtained  by  adding  14.7 
to  the  gauge  pressure,  and  multiplying  the  number  oppo- 
site the  fraction  indicating  the  point  of  cut-off  in  the  fol- 
lowing table  by  the  boiler  pressure.  Then  subtract  17 
from  the  product,  and  multiply  by  .9.  The  result  is  the 
M.  E.  P.  for  good,  simple  non-condensing  engines.  If 
the  engine  is  a  simple  condensing  engine,  subtract  the 
pressure  in  the  condenser  instead  of  17. 


CUT  OFF 

CONSTANT 

CUT-OFF 

CONSTANT 

CUT-OFF 

CONSTANT 

* 

.566 

t 

.771 

1 

.917 

* 

.603 

.4 

.789 

.7 

.926 

* 

.659 

i 

.847 

1 

.937 

.3 

.708 

.6 

.895 

.8 

.944 

} 

.743 

f 

.904 

I 

.951 

The  fraction  indicating  the  point  of  cut-off  is  obtained 
by  dividing  the  distance  that  the  piston  has  travelled 
when  the  steam  is  cut  off  by  the  whole  length  of  the 
stroke. 

Example :  Stroke  is  30  inches,  and  the  steam  is  cut  off 
when  the  piston  has  travelled  20  inches.    The  engine  cuts 
off  at  2%0  =  %  stroke.    For  a  %  cut-off  and  a  92-pound 
gauge  pressure  in  the  boiler,  the  M.  E.  P.  is 
(92  +  14.7)  X  .917  — 17]  X  -9  =  72.76  pounds  per  square 

inch. 


USEFUL  EULES  AND  INFORMATION      369 


INDICATED  HORSE-POWER  "PER  POUND"  OF  MEAN  EFFECTIVE 
PRESSURE  PER  SQUARE  INCH 

(  "  HORSE-POWER  CONSTANTS  "  ) 


DIAMETER 

OF 

CYLINDER 
IN  INCHES 

SPEED  OF  PISTON  IN  FEET  PER  MINUTE 

240 

300 

350 

400 

450 

500 

550 

600 

6 

0.205 

0.257 

0.3 

0.343 

0.385 

0.428 

0.471 

0.514 

7 

0.28 

0.35 

0.408 

0.466 

0.525 

0.583 

0.641 

0.699 

8 

0.365 

0.457 

0.533 

0.609 

0.685 

0.761 

0.837 

0.914 

9 

0.463 

0.578 

0.675 

0.771 

0.867 

0.964 

1.06 

1.157 

10 

0.571 

0.714 

0.833 

0.952 

1.071 

1.19 

1.309 

1.428 

11 

0.691 

0.864 

1.008 

1.152 

1.296 

1.44 

1.584 

1.728 

12 

0.822 

1.028 

1.119 

1.371 

1.542 

1.713 

1.885 

2.056 

13 

0.965 

1.206 

1.408 

1.609 

1.81 

2.011 

2.212 

2.413 

14 

1.119 

1.399 

1.633 

1.866 

2.099 

2.332 

2.565 

2.799 

15 

1.285 

1.606 

1.874 

2.142 

2.41 

2.677 

2.945 

3.213 

16 

1.462 

1.828 

2.132 

2.437 

2.742 

3.046 

3.351 

3.656 

17 

1.651 

2.063 

2.407 

2.751 

3.095 

3.439 

3.783 

4.127 

18 

1.851 

2.313 

2.699 

3.084 

3.470 

3.855 

4.241 

4.627 

19 

2.062 

2.577 

3.007 

3.437 

3.866 

4.296 

4.725 

5.155 

20 

2.285 

2.856 

3.332 

3.808 

4.284 

4.76 

5.236 

5.712 

21 

2.519 

3.149 

3.673 

4.198 

4.723 

5.248 

5.773 

6.297 

22 

2.764 

3.456 

4.032 

4.607 

5.183 

5.759 

6.335 

6.911 

23 

3.021 

3.777 

4.406 

5.036 

5.665 

6.295 

6.924 

7.554 

24 

3.29 

4.112 

4.798 

5.183 

6.169 

6.854 

7.539 

8.225 

25 

3.57 

4.462 

5.206 

5.95 

6.694 

7.437 

8.181 

8.925 

26 

3.86 

4.826 

5.63 

6.434 

7.238 

8.043 

8.847 

9.651 

27 

4.164 

5.205 

6.072 

6.94 

7.807 

8.675 

9.542 

10.41 

28 

4.478 

5.598 

6.531 

7.464 

8.397 

9.329 

10.262 

11.195 

29 

4.804 

6.005 

7.005 

8.006 

9.007 

10.008 

11.009 

12.009 

30 

5.141 

6.426 

7.497 

8.568 

9.639 

10.71 

11.781 

12.852 

31 

5.489 

6.861 

8.005 

9.149 

10.292 

11.436 

12.579 

13.753 

32 

5.849 

7.311 

8.53 

9.748 

10.967 

12.185 

13.404 

14.623 

33 

6.22 

7.775 

9.071 

10.367 

11.663 

12.959 

14.255 

15.551 

34 

6.603 

8.254 

9.629 

11.005 

12.381 

13.756 

15.132 

16.508 

35 

6.997 

8.746 

10.204 

11.662 

13.12 

14.577 

16.035 

17.493 

36 

7.403 

9.253 

10.795 

12.338 

13.88 

15.422 

16.964 

18.506 

37 

7.82 

9.774 

11.404 

13.033 

14.662 

16.291 

17.92 

19.549 

38 

8.248 

10.31 

12.028 

13.747 

15.465 

17.183 

18.902 

20.62 

39 

8.688 

10.86 

12.67 

14.48 

16.29 

18.1 

19.91 

21.72 

40 

9.139 

11.424 

13.328 

15.232 

17.136 

19.04 

20.944 

22.848 

41 

9.602 

12.002 

14.003 

16.003 

18.003 

20.004 

22.004 

24.004 

42 

10.076 

12.595 

14.694 

16.793 

18.892 

20.991 

23.091 

25.19 

43 

10.561 

13.202 

15.402 

17.602 

19.803 

22.003 

24.203 

26.403 

44 

11.058 

13.823 

16.127 

18.431 

26.734 

23.038 

25.342 

27.646 

45 

11.567 

14.458 

16.868 

19.278 

21.688 

24.097 

26.507 

28.917 

46 

12.086 

15.108 

17.626 

20.144 

22.662 

25.18 

27.698 

30.216 

47 

12.618 

15.772 

18.401 

21.03 

23.658 

26.287 

28.916 

31.545 

48 

13.16 

16.45 

19.192 

21.934 

24.676 

27.417 

30.159 

32.901 

49 

13.714 

17.143 

20.0 

22.857 

25.714 

28.572 

31.429 

34.286 

50 

14.28 

17.85 

20.825 

23.8 

26.775 

29.75 

32.725 

35.7 

370 


COOPERAGE 


This  formula  is  worked  out  as  follows: 

Gauge  pressure  92     pounds 
Atmospheric  pressure  14.7  pounds 

Total  pressure  106.7 
Horsepower  constant    .917 

7469 
1067 
9603 


97.8439 
Less  17 


80.8439 
.9 

M.  E.  P.=  72.75951  or  72.76  pounds  per  square  in. 

The  i  i  actual  horsepower ' '  of  an  engine  is  usually  ap- 
proximated as  three-fourths  of  the  "indicated  horse- 
power. ' ' 

USEFUL  NUMBERS  FOR  RAPID  APPROXIMATION 
(From  Hamilton's  Useful  Information  for  Railroad  Men) 

Feet 

Yards 

Links 

Links 

Feet 

Square  inches 

Circular  inches 

Square  feet 

Acres 

Square  yards 

Width  in  chains 

Cubic  feet 

Cubic  inches 

U.  S.  bushels 

U.  S.  bushels 

U.  S.  bushels 

Cubic  feet 


X           .00019 

.=  miles. 

X          .0006 

=  miles. 

X           .22 

—  yards. 

X          .66 

=  feet. 

X        1.5 

—  links. 

X          .007 

=  square  feet. 

X          .00546 

=  square  feet. 

X          .111 

=  square  yards. 

X  4840. 

=  square  yards. 

X          .0002026 

=  acres. 

X        8. 

=  acres  per  mile. 

X          .04 

=  cubic  yards. 

X          .00058 

—  cubic  feet. 

X           .046 

=  cubic  yards. 

X         1.244 

=  cubic  feet. 

X  2150.42 

=  cubic  inches. 

X           .8036 

=  U.  S.  bushels. 

USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      371 


Cubic  inches  X  .000466 

U.  S.  gallons  X  .13368 

U.  S.  gallons  X  231. 

Cubic  feet  X  7.48 

Cylindrical  feet  X  5.878 

Cubic  inches  X  .004329 

Cylindrical  inches  X  .0034 

Pounds  X  .009 

Pounds  X  .00045 

Cubic  feet  water  X  62.5 

Cubic  inches  water  X  .03617 

(Cylindrical  foot  of  water  X  49.1 

Cylindrical  inches  of  water  X  .02842 

U.  S.  gallons  of  water  —  13.44 

U.  S.  gallons  of  water  —  268.8 

Cubic  feet  of  water  —  1.8 

Cubic  feet  of  water  —  35.88 

Cylindrical  foot  of  water  X  5.875 
Column  water  12"  high,  1"  diam. 
183,346  circular  inches 
2,200  cylindrical  inches 

French  metres  X  3.281 

Kilogrammes  X  2.205 

Grammes  X  .0022 


=  U.  S.  bushels. 

—  cubic  feet. 
=  cubic  inches. 
=  U.  S.  gallons. 
=  U.  S.  gallons. 
=  U.  S.  gallons. 
=  U.  S.  gallons. 
=  cwt.  (1121bs.). 
=  tons  ( 2,240  Ibs.). 
=  pounds  avoirdupois. 
=  pounds  avoirdupois. 
=  pounds  avoirdupois. 
=  pounds  avoirdupois. 

—  cwt.  (112  Ibs.). 

—  tons  (2,240  Ibs.). 
=  cwt.  (112  Ibs.). 
=  tons. 

=  U.  S.  gallons. 

—  34  pounds. 

=  1  square  foot. 

=  1  cubic  foot. 

=  feet. 

=•  avoirdupois  pounds. 

=  avoirdupois  pounds. 


DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  OF  FRACTIONAL  PARTS  OF  AN  INCH 


FRAC- 
TIONS 

DECIMALS 

FRAC- 
TIONS 

»—           FRAC- 

DECIMALS 

FRAC- 
TIONS 

DECIMALS 

A 

0.015625 

H 

0.265625 

83 

0.515625 

It 

0.765625 

A 

0.03125 

A 

0.28125 

if 

0.53125 

ft 

0.78125 

7* 

0.046875 

0.296875 

If 

0.546875 

IT 

0.796875 

A 

0.0625 

2 

0.3125 

ft 

0.5625 

J  8 

0.8125 

?* 

0.078125 

B 

0.328125 

0.578125 

II 

0.828125 

A 

0.09375 

ii 

0.34375 

0.59375 

If 

0.84375 

* 

0.109375 

II 

0  359375 

0.609375 

it 

0.859375 

0.125 

| 

0.375 

| 

0.625 

| 

0.875 

i 

0.140625 

II 

0.390625 

4 

0.640625 

0.890625 

A 

0.15625 

if 

0.40625 

it 

0.65625 

0.90625 

| 

0.171875 
0.1875 

" 

0.421875 
0.4375 

ft 

TW 

0.671875 
0.6875 

tf 

0.921875 
0.9375 

it 

0.203125 

If 

0.453125 

0.703125 

0.953125 

S 

0.21875 

15 

0.46875 

--•§• 

0.71875 

1 

0.96875 

I! 

0.234375 

li 

0.484375 

8 

0.734375 

0.984375 

f 

0.25 

i 

0.5 

i 

0.75 

1 

1.0 

372 


COOPEEAGE 


TABLE  OF  GAUGES 


GAUGE  NUMBER 

AMERICAN  LEGAL 
STANDARD 

BROWN  &  SHARP 
AMERICAN 
STANDARD 

BIRMINGHAM  OR 
STUBBS  BRITISH 
STANDARD 

ENGLISH  IMPERIAL 
LEGAL 
STANDARD 

LANCASHIRE 

ONE  OP 

HOLTZAPFFEL'S 

WARRINGTON 

OR 

RTLAND'S 

WHITWORTH'S 
ENGLISH 
STANDARD 

NEEDLE  WIRE 

Music  WIRE 

0000000 

.500 

.500 

.500 

000000 

.468+ 

.464 

.468+ 

00000 

.437+ 

.432 

.437+ 

0000 

.406+ 

.460 

.454 

.400 

.406+ 

000 

.375 

.409+ 

.425 

.372 

.375 

oo 

.343+ 

.364+ 

.380 

.348 

.343+ 

o 

.312  + 

.324+ 

.340 

.324 

.326 

1 

.281+ 

.289+ 

.300 

.300 

.227 

.300 

.001 

.045 

.... 

2 

.265+ 

.257+ 

.284 

.276 

.219 

.274 

.002 

.042 



3 

.250 

.229+ 

.259 

.252 

.209 

.250 

.003 

.035 

.... 

4 

.234+ 

.204+ 

.238 

.232 

.204 

.229 

.004 

.032 

5 

.218+ 

.181  + 

.220 

.212 

.201 

.209 

.005 

.028 

6 

.203+ 

.162+ 

.203 

.192 

.198 

.191 

.006 

.025 

.018 

7 

.187+ 

.144+ 

.180 

.176 

.195 

.174 

.007 

.022 

.019 

8 

.171+ 

.128+ 

.165 

.160 

.192 

.159 

.008 

.020 

.020 

9 

.156+ 

.114+ 

.148 

.144 

.191 

.146 

.009 

.018 

.021 

10 

.140+ 

.101+ 

.134 

.128 

.190 

.133 

.010 

.016 

.022 

11 

.125 

.090+ 

.120 

.116 

.189 

.117 

.011 

.014 

.023 

12 

.109+ 

.080+ 

.109 

.104 

.185 

.100 

.012 

.013 

.025 

13 

.093+ 

.071  + 

.095 

.092 

.180 

.090 

.013 

.012 

.026+ 

14 

.078+ 

.064+ 

.083 

.080 

.177 

.079 

.014 

.010 

.028 

15 

.080+ 

.057+ 

.072 

.072 

.175 

.069 

.015 

.009 

.030 

16 

.062  + 

.050+ 

.065 

.064 

.174 

.062+ 

.016 

.008 

.032 

17 

.056+ 

.045+ 

.058 

.056 

.169 

.053 

.017 

.007 

.033+ 

18 

.050 

.040+ 

.049 

.048 

.167 

.047 

.018 

.005 

.035 

19 

.043+ 

.035+ 

.042 

.040 

.164 

.041 

.019 

.004 

.038 

20 

.037+ 

.031+ 

.035 

.036 

.160 

.036 

.020 

.003 

.042 

21 

.034+ 

.028+ 

.032 

.032 

.157 

.031  + 

.021 

.002 

.... 

22 

.031  + 

.025+ 

.028 

.028 

.152 

.028 

.022 

.001 

.... 

23 

.028+ 

.022  + 

.025 

.024 

.150 

.023 

.... 

24 

.025 

.020+ 

.022 

.022 

.148 

.024 

25 

.021+ 

.017+ 

.020 

.020 

.146 

.025 

.... 

26 

.018+ 

.015+ 

.018 

.018 

.143 

.026 

.... 

.... 

27 

.017+ 

.014+ 

.016 

.016+ 

.141 

.027 

.... 

.... 

28 

.015+ 

.012+ 

.014 

.014+ 

.138 

.028 

.... 

.... 

29 

.014+ 

.011+ 

.013 

.013+ 

.134 

.029 

.... 



30 

.012+ 

.010+ 

.012 

.012+ 

.125 

.... 

.030 

.... 

31 

.010+ 

.008+ 

.010 

.011+ 

.118 

.031 

.... 

32 

.010 

.007+ 

.009 

.010+ 

.115 

.032 

.... 

.... 

33 

.009+ 

.007 

.008 

.010 

.111 

.... 

.033 

.... 

.... 

34 

.006+ 

.006+ 

.007 

.009+ 

.109 

.... 

.034 

.... 

.... 

35 

.007+ 

.005+ 

.005 

.008+ 

.107 

.... 

.035 

.... 

.... 

36 

.007 

.005 

.004 

.007+ 

.105 

.... 

.036 

.... 

.... 

37 

.006+ 

.004+ 

.006+ 

.102 

.... 

.037 

.... 

.... 

38 

.006 

.003+ 

.... 

.006 

.100 

.... 

.038 

.... 

.... 

39 

.005+ 

.003+ 

.... 

.005+ 

.098 

.039 

.... 

40 

.005 

.003+ 

.... 

.005 

.096 

.040 

41 

.004+ 

.004+ 

.095 

.041 

42 

.004 

.004 

.091 

Note:    The  above  represent  decimal  fractional  parts  of  an  inch. 


USEFUL  EULES  AND  INFORMATION      373 


TABLE  OF  ALLOYS 


NAME 

APPROXIMATE  PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION 
BT  WEIGHT 

USES  AND  REMARKS 

COPPER 

K 

u 

g 

N 

q 
1 

«    3 
g    2 

H         » 

0     & 

Gun  Metal  

91 

75 
95 

92^ 

89 

90 
88 
83 

77 
3 

66% 

60 

56 
50 
50 

75 

60 

9 

25 
4 

7 
10 

io 

2 

8 
89 

&X 

10 
50 
W% 
80 
1)0 

j  Ordnance,  Bearings,  Cast- 
1     ings 
Bells,  Gongs;  Rather  Brittle 
Coins,  Medals 
f  Strong    Castings,    Heavy 
|     Bearings 
1  Propeller  Blades,  Pumps; 
•<      It    is    very   strong  and 
/     Non-corrosive 
Very  High  Tensile  Strength 
Also  called  Best  Valve  Metal 
Cheaper  Valves,  Cocks,  Etc. 

For  Heavy  Bearings 

For  High  Speed  Bearings 
j  For  Repair  Work  on  Bear- 
1     ings 
j  Sheets,  Wire,  Tubes,  Pipe 
j      Fittings,  Etc. 
j  Bolts,    Nuts,    Etc.;    Mal- 
1     leable  at  Red  Heat. 
Strong  Sheets.  Etc. 
Has  Low  Melting  Point 
For  Copper  Work 
Very  Strong 
j  Ornaments,  Resistance 
1      Wire 
For  Safety  Valves,  Etc. 

Plates,  Mugs,  Etc. 
Tableware,  Etc. 
Type,  Etc. 
Acid  Cocks,  Valves,  Etc. 

Bell  Metal  
Bronze  Coin  ....  ... 

1 
'2 

IS 

33** 

40 
42 

8* 

25 
20 

Phosphor  Bronze  

Manganese  Bronze  

Aluminum  Bronze  .... 
Composition  Metal.   ... 
Valve  Metal  

Heavy  Bearing  Metal  .  .  . 
Original  Babbitt's  Metal 
Babbitt  Metal  

Common  Brass  
Muntz  Metal       

%  Phosphorus 

1  Manganese 
10  Aluminum 

15 

80 

j     Trace  of     / 
1  Phosphorus  f 
8  Antimony 

20  Antimony 

Delta  Metal    
Soft  Brazing  Metal  
Medium  Brazing  Metal  . 
Hard  Brazing  Metal  

German  Silver  

2  Iron 



86 
50 

SP 

80 

88 

20  Nickel 
4  Bismuth 

Fusible  Plug  

Common  Solder  
Fine  Solder  

•• 

2  Antimony 
10  Antimony 
20  Antimony 
12  Antimony 

Pewter 

Britannia  Metal  

Type  Metal 

Regulus  Metal  

GOVERNMENT    OR   TREASURY 
WHITEWASH 

WHAT  is  known  as  ' '  Government ' '  or  l i  Treasury  white- 
wash, "  because  the  formula  was  sent  out  by  the  Light- 
house Board  of  the  United  States  Treasury  Department, 
is  considered  the  best  that  can  be  made.  To  make  it, 
slake  V2  bushel  of  unslaked  lime  with  boiling  water,  and 
cover  it  to  keep  in  the  steam.  Strain  the  liquid  through 
a  fine  sieve,  and  then  add  to  it  1  peck  of  common  salt, 
previously  well  dissolved  in  warm  water;  3  pounds  of 
ground  rice  boiled  to  a  thin  paste  and  stirred  in  boiling 


374  COOPEEAGE 

hot;  Y2  pound  Spanish  whiting,  and  1  pound  of  clean 
glue  which  has  also  been  previously  dissolved.  Then  add 
to  this  mixture  5  gallons  of  hot  water.  Stir  well,  and  let 
it  stand  covered  for  a  few  days.  Then  heat  to  a  boiling 
point  and  apply.  "It  should  be  applied  hot,  as  this  is 
essential  to  success. "  Do  not  allow  the  mixture  to  get 
lukewarm  or  cold.  It  can  be  kept  hot  by  using  a  small 
pail  suspended  in  a  large  pail  of  hot  water.  For  neat 
work,  brushes  somewhat  small  should  be  used,  and  the 
whitewash  should  be  applied  in  thin  coats.  A  pint  of 
the  mixture  if  applied  hot  will  cover  about  one  square 
yard  of  surface.  This  preparation  has  been  found  to 
answer  as  well  as  oil  paint  for  wood,  brick,  or  stone,  and 
is  much  cheaper.  It  retains  its  brilliancy  for  many  years, 
and  is  equally  desirable  for  inside  or  outside  work.  Any 
color  may  be  added  to  the  mixture  except  green,  which 
causes  the  whitewash  to  flake  off.  Spanish  brown  stirred 
in  makes  a  rose  pink,  and  finely  pulverized  common  clay 
mixed  with  Spanish  brown  makes  a  reddish  stone  color. 
The  darkness  of  the  shades  is  determined  by  the  amount 
of  color  used. 

"POWER  EQUIVALENTS" 

One  horsepower  is  equal  to : 

1,980,000         foot-pounds  per  hour. 
33,000         foot-pounds  per  minute. 
550         foot-pounds  per  second. 
273,740         kilogramme-metres  per  hour. 
4,562.3      kilogramme-metres  per  minute. 
76.04    kilogramme-metres  per  second. 
2,552         British  thermal  units  per  hour. 
42.53    British  thermal  units  per  minute. 
0.709  British  thermal  unit    per  second. 
0.746  kilowatt. 
746         watts. 


USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      375 

One  kilowatt  is  equal  to: 

2,654,400  foot-pounds  per  hour. 

44,239  foot-pounds  per  minute. 

737.3  foot-pounds  per  second. 

366,970  kilogramme-metres  per  hour. 

6,116.2  kilogramme-metres  per  minute. 

101.94  kilogramme-metres  per  second. 

3,438.4  British  thermal  units  per  hour. 

57.30  British  thermal  units  per  minute. 

0.955  British  thermal  unit    per  second. 

1,000  watts. 

1.34  horsepower. 

One  watt  is  equal  to: 

2,654.4  foot-pounds  per  hour. 

44.239          foot-pounds  per  minute. 
0.737          foot-pound    per  second. 
366.97  kilogramme-metres  per  hour. 

6.12  kilogramme-metres  per  minute. 

'  0.102          kilogramme-metre    per  second. 
3.4384        British  thermal  units  per  hour. 
0.0573        British  thermal  unit    per  minute. 
0.000955     British  thermal  unit    per  second. 
0.001          kilowatt. 
0.0013406  horsepower. 

One  foot-pound  is  equal  to: 

0.0000003767  kilowatt  per  hour. 
0.0000226        kilowatt  per  minute. 
0.001356          kilowatt  per  second. 
0.000000506    horsepower  per  hour. 
0.0000303        horsepower  per  minute. 
0.001818          horsepower  per  second. 
0.0003767        watt  per  hour. 
0.0226  watt  per  minute. 

1.356  watt  per  second. 


376 


COOPERAGE 


One  foot-pound  is  equal  to: 

1.3825  kilogramme-metres. 

0.001288          British  thermal  unit. 

When  estimating  water  power  at  75  per  cent,  efficiency, 
a  flow  of  705  cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute  equals  1 
horsepower  for  each  1  foot  fall. 

HYDRAULIC  EQUIVALENTS 


One  cubic  foot  of  water 
One  cubic  foot  of  water 
One  cubic  foot  of  water 
One  cubic  foot  of  sea  water 
One  cubic  foot  of  water 
One  cylindrical  foot  of  water 
One  United  States  gallon 
One  United  States  gallon 
One  United  States  gallon 
One  United  States  gallon 
One  imperial  gallon 
One  imperial  gallon 
One  gallon  crude  petroleum 
One  gallon  refined  petroleum 


7.480  U.  S.  gallons. 
d,728        cubic  inches. 

6.232  imperial  gallons. 
:     64        pounds. 
:      62.42    pounds. 
=     48.96   pounds. 

8.345  pounds. 
:    231        cubic  inches. 

0.83    imperial  gallon. 

3.8     litres  of  water. 
:   277.3      cubic  inches. 

0.16    cubic  foot. 

6.5      pounds. 

6.5     pounds. 


MENSURATION 

Circumference  of  a  circle  =  diameter  X  3.1416. 
Circumference  of  a  circle  X  .31831  =  diameter. 
Diameter  of  a  circle  =  circumference  X  .31831. 
Diameter  of  a  circle  X  3.1416  —  circumference. 
Diameter  of  a  circle  X-8862  =  side  of  an  equal  square. 
Diameter  of  a  circle  X- 7071  =  side    of    an    inscribed 
square. 

Area  of  a  circle  =  square  of  radius  X  3.1416. 
Area  of  a  triangle  =  base  X  half  of  altitude. 
Area  of  a  square  =  base  X  height. 


USEFUL  RULES  AND  INFORMATION      377 

Area  of  a  trapezium  —  half  the  sum  of  two  parallel 
sides  X  height. 

Area  of  a  parabola  =  base  X  height  X  .6666. 

Area  of  an  ellipse  —  long  axis  X  short  axis  X  0.7854. 

Area  of  a  parallelogram  =  base  X  height. 

Area  of  sector  of  circle  =  length  of  arc  X  one-half  of 
radius. 

Square  of  diameter  X  .7854  =  area  of  circle. 

Square  root  of  an  area  X  1.12837  —  diameter  of  equal 
circle. 

Side  of  a  square  X  1.12837  =  diameter  of  equal  circle. 

Contents  of  cylinder  —  area  of  end  X  length. 


INDEX 


SEC.   PAGE 

A 

Acacia,   three-thorned I       49 

Adjusting     circular     saws, 

for  hammering  and IV     114 

Air-seasoning,    head   piling 

and    IX     285 

Air-seasoning,  stave  piling 

and    VIII     240 

Alcoholic     liquids,     staves 

and  heads  of  barrels  con- 
taining         II       86 

Alloys,  table  of XII     373 

Ambrosia  or  timber  beetles     II       74 

American  elm I       37 

American  linden I       32 

Anatomical     structure     of 

wood    I       13 

Annual  or  yearly  ring,  the       I         9 

Arborvitse I       16 

Arrangement  of   mill,  site 

and VII 

Ash    I 

Ash,  black   I 


Ash,  blue   I 

Ash,  green    I 

Ash,  ground I 

Ash,  hoop  I 

Ash,  Oregon I 

Ash,  red   I 

Ash,  white   I 

Aspen    I 

Aspen    I 

Assembling  heading,  match- 
ing or IX  292 

B 

Babbitt  metal  and\  babbit- 
ting   XII  359 

Babbitting,  Babbitt  metal 

and  .  . .  XII  359 


192 
30 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 
31 
32 
55 


SEC.  PAGE 

Bald  cypress I  18 

Ball  tree,  button I  55 

Balm  of  Gilead I  54 

Balsam   I  54 

Balsam  fir I  18 

Bark  and  pith. I  7 

Bark  on,  round  timber  with     II  79 
Barrels     containing     alco- 
holic liquids,  staves  and 

heads  of II  86 

Barrel     in    Indiana,    legal 

fruit    XII  353 

Barrel  in  New  York  State, 

legal   fruit XII  353 

Basket   oak I  52 

Basswood    I  32 

Basswood    I  32 

Basswood I  57 

Basswood,  white I  32 

Bastard  pine I  22 

Bastard  spruce I  24 

Bay  poplar I  44 

Beech I  32 

Beech    and    maple    staves, 

oak   VIII  235 

Beech,  blue 1  33 

Beech,  water I  33 

Beech,  water I  55 

Beetles,  ambrosia  or  timber     II  74 

Bee  tree I  32 

Belting,  notes  on XII  353 

Belting,  rules  for  calculat- 
ing power  of XII  357 

Belts,  horsepower  of XII  358 

Belt*,  speed  of XII  355 

Berry,  sugar I  47 

Big-bud  hickory I  47 

Bilsted    I  39 

Birch  I  32 

Birch,  black I  33 


380 


INDEX 


Birch,  canoe I 

Birch,  cherry 

Birch,  gray 

Birch,  mahogany 

Birch,  paper 

Birch,  red 

Birch,  river I 

Birch,  sweet 

Birch,  white 

Birch,  yellow 

Bitter-nut  hickory 

Black  ash.. 

Black  birch 

Black  cottonwood 

Black  cypress I 

Black  gum 

Black  hickory 

Black  hickory 

Black-nut  hickory 

Black  locust 

Black  locust 

Black  locust 

Black  oak 

Black  oak 

Black  pine   

Black  pine   

Black  spruce 

Black  walnut 

Black  walnut 

Blue  ash 

Blue  beech  

Blue  poplar 

Bois  d'arc 

Bois  d'arc 

Boiling  vat,  the  hoop 

Bolting. room,  the VIII 

Bolting  saw,  the VIII 

Bolting  out IX 

Bolt     equalizing    machine, 

stave VIIII 

Bolts,  stave  and  heading.  .VIII 
Bolts,  insect  injury  to  stave 

and  heading II 

Bolts,       steam-boxes       for 

stave   .  .  .VIII 


SEC.   PAGE 

33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
33 
48 
31 
,33 
54 
18 
46 
47 
48 
47 
48 
48 
49 
52 
52 
23 
23 
23 
33 
56 
31 
33 
58 
34 
53 
313 
208 
214 
257 


228 
216 

83 
218 


SEC.   PAGE 

Borers,  flat-headed II  77 

Borers,  powder  post II  78 

Borers,  round-headed II  75 

Boxes      for      stave     bolts, 

steam VIII  218 

Broad-leaved  maple I  50 

Broad-leaved  trees,   list  of 

most  important I  30 

Broad-leaved  trees,  wood  of       I  25 

Brown  hickory I  48 

Buckeye    I  34 

Buckeye,  fetid I  34 

Buckeye,  Ohio I  34 

Buckeye,  sweet I  34 

Bud  hickory,  big I  47 

Bud  hickory,  switch I  48 

Bulldog  furnace,  the  Dutch 

oven  or VIII  226 

Bull  nut  hickory I  47 

Bull  pine I  22 

Bull  pine I  23 

Bundling  or  packing,  head- 
ing     IX  298 

Bundling  or  packing,  stave.VIII  249 

Bur  oak I  52 

Burning  slash  or  refuse. .  .    Ill  99 

Butternut   I  34 

Butternut   I  34 

Butternut   I  57 

Buttonbalf  tree I  55 

Buttonwood    .                               I  55 


Calculating  power  of  belt- 
ing, rules  for XII  357 

Calculating    speed    of   pul- 
leys, rules  for XII  356 

Calculation,  useful  numbers 

for   rapid XII  370 

Canoe  birch I  33 

Canoe  cedar I  16 

Capacity  of  cars XII  351 

Care  of  saws,  the  proper.  .     IV  122 

Carolina  pine I  22 


INDEX 


381 


SEC.  PAGE 

Cars,  capacity  of XII  351 

Catalpa   I  34 

Cause    and    prevention    of 

forest  fires Ill  101 

Causes   of  poor   results   in 

saws,  some IV  122 

Cedar I  16 

Cedar,  canoe I  16 

Cedar,  elm I  37 

Cedar,  incense I  17 

Cedar  of  the  West,  red I  16 

Cedar,  Oregon I  17 

Cedar,  Port  Orford I  17 

Cedar,  red I  17 

Cedars,  red I  17 

Cedar,  white. I  16 

Cedar,  white I  17 

Cedar,  white I  17 

Cedar,  white I  17 

Centre,  to  place  an  engine 

on  the  dead XII  366 

Changed  conditions  in  for- 

e'stry    Ill  96 

Characteristics  and  proper- 
ties of  timber I  3 

Cherry I  35 

Cherry I  35 

Cherry  .birch I  33 

Chestnut    I  35 

Chestnut,  horse I  34 

Chestnut,  horse. . I  48 

Chestnut,  oak I  52 

Chinquapin    I  35 

Chinquapin    I  36 

Chinquapin  oak I  52 

Chiefly  used  for  slack  coo- 
perage, woods VI  156 

Circular    cut-off    saw,    the 

drop-feed    ....VIII  212 

Circular    ripsaws IV  128 

Circular  ripsaws,  standard 

number  teeth  in. . . . IV  130 

Circular  saws,  for  hammer- 
ing and  adjusting IV  114 

Circular  saws,  for  setting..  IV  115 


SEC.   PAGE 

Circular  saws,  for  sharpen- 
ing and  gumming IV  111 

Circular  saws,  for  side- 
dressing  IV 

Circular  saws,  for  swaging    IV 


Classes  of  trees I 

Cliff  elm I 

Coffee  nut I 

Coffee  tree I 

Coiling  machine,  the  hoop.  X 

Collars  for  saws IV 

Color  and  odor I 

Comparative  fuel  value  of 

wood,  weight  and XII 

Concerning  effects  of  fires, 

erroneous  ideas Ill 

Concerning  forest  fires, 

views  of  lumbermen Ill 

Conditions  favorable  for 

insect  injury , II 

Conditions  in  forestry, 

changed Ill 

Conditions  which  affect  fire 

losses Ill 

Coniferous  trees,  wood 

of I 

Coniferous  woods,  list  of 

more  important I 

Constants,  horsepower ....  XII 
Cooperage  stock  and  wood- 
en truss  hoops,  dry II 

Cooperage  stock  produc- 
tion, slack  VI 

Cooperage  stock,  weights  of 

slack  XII 

Cooperage,  woods  chiefly 

used  for  slack VI 

Cord  or  rank,  number  of 

staves  per VIII 


Cork  elm 

Cotton  gum 

Cottonwood 

Cottonwood 

Cottonwood 

Cottonwood,  black, 


113 
112 
5 

37 

36 

36 

321 

131 

62 

367 
93 
95 
79 
96 
93 


16 
369 

86 
158 
349 
156 

235 
37 
44 
36 
54 
55 
54 


382 


INDEX 


SEC.  PAGE 

Cottonwood     staves,     gum 

and    VIII  235 

Cow  oak I  52 

Cracks  in  equalizer  saws.  .VIII  230 

Cross-cut  saws,  cut-off  or. .    IV  130 
Cross-cut     saws,     standard 

number  teeth  in IV  131 

Crude  products II  79 

Cuban   pine 22 

Cucumber  tree 36 

Cucumber  tree 56 

Cull  staves,  dead VII  254 

Cup  oak,  mossy 52 

Cup  oak,  over I  52 

Cup  oak,  over I  52 

Cut-off  or  cross-cut  saws. .    IV  130 

Cut-off  saw,  the VIII  209 

Cut-off  saw,  the  drop-feed 

circular VIII  212 

Cut-off  saw,  the  swing VIII  239 

Cutter,  the  hoop X  316 

Cutting  machine,  the  stave. VIII  231 
Cutting   process   of   manu- 
facturing hoops,  the X  312 

Cylinder  stave  saw,  the.  .  .VIII  236 
Cylinder    stave    saws,    for 

gumming  and  sharpening   IV  116 
Cylinder    stave    saws,    for 

swaging IV  117 

Cypress   I  18 

Cypress,  bald I  18 

Cypress,  black I  18 

Cypress,  Lawson's I  17 

Cypress,   red I  18 

Cypress,  white I  18 

D 

D'arc,  Bois I  34 

D'arc,  Bois I  53 

Dead  centre,  to  place  an 

engine  on  the XII  366 

Dead  cull  staves VIII  254 

Dealing  with  the  fire  prob- 
lem, new  departures  in .  .  Ill  98 

Decimal  equivalents XII  371 


SEC.   PAGE 

Demands  of  red  gum  upon 

soil  and  moisture I  41 

Departures 'in  dealing  with 

the  fire  problem,  new.  . .  Ill  98 
Different  grains  of  wood ...  I  58 
Different  ideas  on  temper 

of  knives V  143 

Different  species,  weight  of 

kiln-dried  wood  of I  68 

Difficulties  of  drying  wood .  IX  278 
Difficulties  of  transporting 

gum,  the VII  191 

Discussion  on  knives,  prac- 
tical    V  143 

Distribution  of  water  in 

wood IX  267 

Douglas  spruce I  24 

Drag  saw,  the VIII  211 

Dressing  circular  saws,  for 

side IV  113 

Drop-feed  circular  cut-off 

saw,  the VIII  212 

Drum  saws,  for  sharpening 

and  gumming IV  US 

Drum  saws,  for  swaging.  . .  IV  117 
Dry  cooperage  stock  and 

wooden  truss  hoops II  86 

Drying  kiln IX  280 

Drying  wood,  difficulties  of  IX  278. 
Drying,  unsolved  problems 

in  kiln ' IX  279 

Duck  oak I  53 

Dutch  oven  or  bulldog  fur- 
nace, the VIII  226 

Duty  of  steam  engines XII  365 

E 
Effect  fire  losses,  conditions 

which Ill  93 

Effects   of   fires,   erroneous 

ideas  concerning Ill  93 

Effects  of  moisture  on  wood  IX  270 

Elm    I  3G 

Elm,  American I  37 

Elm,  cedar I  37 


INDEX 


383 


SEC.    PAGE 

Elm,  cliff I  37 

Elm,  cork I  37 

Elm,  hickory I  37 

Elm,  moose I  37 

Elm,  red I  37 

Elm,  rock.... I  37 

Elm,  slippery I  37 

Elm  staves VIII  234 

Elm,  water I  37 

Elm,  white I  37 

Elm,  white I  37 

Elm,  winged I  38 

Emery  wheels,  use  of V  148 

Emery  wheels,  speed  of. ...  V  150 

Enemies  of  wood II  71 

Enemy  of  forests,  fires  the 

greatest Ill  89 

Engines,  duty  of  steam.  . .  .  XII  365 
Engines,  horsepower  of 

steam XII  367 

Engine  on  the  dead  centre, 

to  place  an XII  366 

Equalizer  saws,  cracks  in .  .  VIII  230 
Equalizing  machine,  stave 

bolt  VIII  228 

Equipment,  filing-room ....  IV  109 

Equivalents,  decimal XII  371 

Equivalents,  hydraulic XII  376 

Equivalents,  power XII  374 

Erroneous  ideas  concerning 

effects  of  fires Ill  93 

Estimates  of  losses  from 

forest  fires,  some Ill  90 

Evaporation  of  water  in 

wood,  manner  of IX  266 

Evaporation  of  water  in 

wood,  rapidity  of IX  269 

F 

Favorable    for    insect    in- 
jury, conditions II  79 

Felling,  time  of VII  178 

Fetid  buckeye I  34 

Field  pine,  old I  22 

Field  pine,  old I  22 


SEC.    PAGE 

Fighting  forest  fires,  meth- 
ods of Ill  102 

Files,  to  temper  old V     147 

Filing-room  equipment IV     109 

Fir I       18 

Fir,  balsam I       18 

Fir,   red I       18 

Fir,   red I       19 

Fir,  red I       24 

Fir,   white I       18 

Fir,   white I       18 

Fir,   yellow I       24 

Fires,  erroneous  ideas  con- 
cerning effects  of Ill  93 

Fires,  cause  and  prevention 

of  forest Ill  101 

Fires,  forest Ill       89 

Fires,  general  remarks  on 
forest Ill  89 

Fire  losses,  conditions 
which  effect Ill  93 

Fires,  methods  of  fighting 

forest Ill  102 

Fire  problem,  new  depart- 
ures in  dealing  with 
the HI  98 

Fire  protection  on  private 
lands  Ill  97 

Fires,  some  estimates  of 

losses  from  forest Ill  90 

Fires  the  great  enemy  of 

forests  Ill  89 

Fires  which  are  not  usually 

considered,  losses  from.  .  Ill  92 

Fires,  views  of  lumbermen 
concerning  forest Ill  95 

Fitting  and  swaging IV     125 

Fitting  not  a  mysterious 

process,  saw IV  108 

Flat-headed  borers II       77 

Fluids,  receipts  for  solder- 
ing   XII  361 

Forest  fires Ill       89 

Forest  fires,  cause  and  pre- 
vention of .  .  .  Ill  101 


384 


INDEX 


SEC.   PAGE 

Forest  fires,  general  re- 
marks on Ill  89 

Forest  fires,  methods  of 

fighting Ill  102 

Forest  fires,  some  esti- 
mates of  losses  from III  90 

Forest  fires,  views  of  lum- 
bermen concerning Ill  95 

Forest  report,  review  of . . .    VI     169 

Forests,  fires  the  greatest 
enemy  of Ill  89 

Forestry,  changed  condi- 
tions in Ill  96 

Form  of  red  gum I       40 

Fruit  barrel  in  Indiana,  le- 
gal   XII  353 

Fruit  barrel  in  New  York 

State,  legal XII  353 

Fuel  value  of  wood,  weight 

and  comparative XII  366 

Furnace,  the  Dutch  oven  or 

bulldog  VIII  226 

G 

Gauges,  table  of XII  372 

General  remarks  on  forest 

fires   Ill  89 

General  remarks  on  tim- 
ber    I  3 

General  saw  instructions . .    IV  107 

Georgia  pine I  21 

Gilead,  balm  of I  54 

Qinger  pine I  17 

Glue  to  resist  moisture XII  361 

Government     or     Treasury 

whitewash XII  371 

Grades  on  heading,  stand- 
ard specifications  and ...    IX  299 
Grades  on  hoops,  standard 

specifications  and X  324 

Grades  on  staves,  standard 

specifications  and VIII  252 

Grains  of  wood,  different.  .        I  58 

Gray  birch I  33 

Gray  pine I  23 


SEC.   PAGE 

Greatest  enemies  of  forests, 

fires  the Ill  89 

Green  ash I  31 

Ground  ash I  31 

Growth  red  gum,  second..  I  43 
Growth,  the  question  of  sec- 
ond    Ill  100 

Gum  and  cottonwood  stavesVIII  235 

Gum    I  38 

Gum,  black I  46 

Gum,  cotton I  44 

Gum,  form  of  red I  40 

Gum,  range  of  red I  39 

Gum,  range  of  tupelo I  46 

Gum,   red I  39 

Gum,  red I  55 

Gum,    demands    upon    soil 

and  moisture  of  red I  41 

Gum,  reproduction  of  red.  .  I  42 

Gum,  second-growth I  43 

Gum,  sour I  55 

Gum,  sour I  46 

Gum,  sweet I  39 

Gum,  sweet I  55 

Gum,     the     difficulties     of 

transporting   VII  191 

Gum,  tolerance  of  red I  41 

Gum,  tupelo. .  . I  44 

Gum,  uses  of  tupelo I  45 

Gumming  circular  saws,  for 

sharpening  and IV  111 

Gumming    and    sharpening 

cylinder  stave  saws  for.  IV  116 

Gumming,  sharpening  and.  IV  125 

H     - 

Hackmatack  I  19 

Hackberry  I  47 

Hackberry  I  47 

Hammering  and  adjusting 

circular  saws,  for IV  114 

Hammering  and  Pensioning 

saws IV  133 

Hard  maple I  50 

Hard  pines I  21 


INDEX 


385 


SEC.  PAGE 

Hardwoods I  30 

Harvesting  raw  material.  .  VII  175 

Headed  borers,  flat II  77 

Headed  borers,  round II  75 

Head  liners X  324 

Heading  and  shingle  bolts, 

stave    II  83 

Heading  bolts,  stave  and.  .VIII  216 
Heading,  bundling  or  pack- 
ing    IX  298 

Heading  jointer,  the IX  288 

Heading  manufacture,  slack  IX  257 
Heading,    matching   or    as- 
sembling     IX  292 

Heading  planer,  the IX  285 

Heading  production,  slack.  VI  166 

Heading  room,  the IX  285 

Heading  saw,  the  pendulous 

swing IX  258 

Heading  saw,  the  horizon- 
tal      IX  262 

Heading,    standard   specifi- 
cations and  grades  on.  .  .  IX  299 

Heading  turner,  the IX  293 

Head  piling  and  air-season- 
ing    IX  285 

Heads   of   barrels   contain- 
ing     alcoholic      liquids, 

staves  and II  86 

Heads    produced,    quantity 

of  slack VI  165 

Heart  hickory,  white I  47 

Heartwood,  sap  and I  8 

Hemlock  I  19 

Hemlock  I  19 

Hemlock  I  19 

Hickory I  47 

Hickory,  big-bud. I  47 

Hickory,  bitternut I  48 

Hickory,  black I  47 

Hickory,  black I  48 

Hickory,  black  nut I  47 

Hickory,  brown I  48 

Hickory,  bull  nut I  47 

Hickory,  elm I  37 


SEC.   PAGE 

Hickory,  mockernut I  47 

Hickory,  pig  nut I  48 

Hickory,  poplar I  58 

Hickory,  shagbark I  47 

Hickory,  shellbark I  47 

Hickory,  swamp I  48 

Hickory,  switch  bud I  48 

Hickory,  whiteheart I  47 

Holly I  48 

Holly I  48 

Honey  locust I  49 

Hoop  ash .  I  31 

Hoop-boiling  vat,  the X  313 

Hoop-coiling  machine,  the.  X  321 

Hoop  cutter,  the X  316 

Hoop  planer,  the X  318 

Hoop-pointing  and  lapping 

machine,  the X  319 

Hoop  production,  slack.  ...  VI  167 

Hoop,  the  patent X  304 

Hoops,  dry  cooperage  stock 

and  wooden  truss II  86 

Hoops,    methods   of   manu- 
facturing    X  305 

Hoops  on  yard,  piling X  323 

Hoops    produced,    quantity 

of   slack VI  168 

Hoops,   cutting   process   of 

manufacturing X  312 

Hoops,  the  manufacture  of  X  303 
Hoops,  the  sawing  process 

of  manufacturing X  309 

Hoops,  the  standard  speci- 
fications and  grades  on .  .  X  324 
Horizontal     heading     saw, 

the IX  262 

Hornbeam I  33 

Horse  chestnut I  34 

Horse  chestnut I  48 

Horsepower  constants XII  369 

Horsepower  of  an  engine.  .  XII  367 
Horsepower  of  leather  belts  XII  358 
How  to  prevent  insect  in- 
jury    II  81 

Hydraulic  equivalents   ....  XII  375 


386 


INDEX 


SEC.    PAGE 
I 

Ideas  concerning  effects  of 

fires,  erroneous Ill  93 

Ideas  on  temper  of  knives, 
different  V  143 

Illinois  nut I       48 

Important  broad-leaved 

trees,  list  of I  30 

Important  coniferous  woods, 

list  of I  16 

Incense  cedar I       17 

Indiana,  legal  fruit  barrel 
in  XII  353 

Information  on  steam,  use- 
ful rules  and XII  364 

Information  on  water,  use- 
ful rules  and XII  362 

Injury,  conditions  favorable 

for  insect II  79 

Injury,  how  to  prevent  in- 
sect   II  81 

Insect  injury,  conditions 

favorable  for II  79 

Insect  injury,  how  to  pre- 
vent    II  81 

Inspection,  stave VIII     250 

Instructions,  general  saw.  .    IV     107 

Iron  oak I       52 

Ironwood I       33 

Ironwood • I       48 


Jersey  pine I  23 

Jointer  knife VIII  247 

Jointer,  the  heading IX  288 

Jointer,  the  stave VIII  244 

pointing,  stave VIII  244 

Juniper,  savin I  17 

K 

Kiln-dried  wood  of  differ- 
ent species,  weights  of .  .  I  68 

Kiln-drying    IX  280 

Kiln-drying,  unsolved  prob: 

lems  in..  IX  279 


SEC.  PAGE 

Knife  jointer VIII  247 

Knife  sharpening,  for IV  118 

Knives,  different  ideas  on 

temper  of V  143 

Knives,  practical  discussion 

on  V  143 

Knives,  speed  of V  144 

Knives,  temper  of V  144 

Knives,  to  temper V  146 


Land  spruce,  tide I  24 

Lands,    fire    protection    on 

private    Ill  97 

Lapping  machine,  the  hoop- 
pointing  and X  319 

Larch I  19 

Lawson's  cypress I  17 

Lead  of  saws IV  127 

Leaf  pine,  long I  21 

Leaf  pine,  short I  22 

Leaf  pine,  yellow  long.  ...  I  21 
Leather    belts,    horsepower 

of   XII  358 

Leaved  maple,  broad I  50 

Leaved  trees,  list  of  impor- 
tant broad I  30 

Leaved  trees,  wood  of  broad  I  25 
Legal  fruit  barrel  in  Indi- 
ana   XII  353 

Legal  fruit  barrel  in  New 

York  State XII  353 

Lin I  32 

Linden,  American I  32 

Liners,  head X  324 

Lime  tree I  32 

Liquidamber    I  39 

Liquids,  heads   and  staves 

of  barrels  containing. ...  II  86 
List    of    important    broad- 
leaved  trees I  30 

List  of  important  conifer- 
ous woods I  16 

Live  oak I  53 

Live  oak . .  I  53 


INDEX 


387 


PAGE 

2 

4 
4 
4 
4 
4 
4' 
4! 
2i 
2 
2 


SEC. 

Loblolly  pine I 

Locust  I 

Locust,  black I 

Locust,  black I 

Locust,  black I 

Locust,  honey I 

Locust,  sweet I 

Locust,  yellow I 

Lodge  pole  pine I 

Long-leaf  pine I 

Long-leaf  pine,  yellow I 

Long-straw  pine I 

Losses,  conditions  which  af- 
fect  fire Ill 

Losses    from    forest    fires, 

Some  estimates  of Ill 

Losses  from  fires  which  are 

not  usually  considered.  .  Ill 
Lumbermen  concerning  for- 
est fires,  views  of Ill 


M 

Machine,    the     stave    bolt 

equalizing  .............  VIII  228 

Machine,  the  stave  cutting.  VIII  231 

Machine,  the  stave  jointingVIII  244 

Machine,  the  hoop-coiling..      X  321 

Machine,  the  hoop-cutting.      X  316 
Machine,  the  hoop-pointing 

and  lapping  ............      X  319 

Magnolia  ................        I  49 

Mahogany  birch  ..........        I  33 

Management,  modern  shop  .    XI  329 

Management,   woods  ......   VII  184 

Manner   of  evaporation   of 

water  in  wood  ..........    IX  266 

Manufacturing    hoops,    the 

cutting  process  of  .......      X  312 

Manufacturing    hoops,    the 

sawn  process  of  .........      X  309 

Manufacturing  hoops,  meth- 

ods of  .................      X  305 

Manufacture  of  hoops,  the.      X  303 

Manufacture,  slack  heading    IX  257 

Manufacture,  slack  stave.  .VIII  197 


Maple   

Maple,  broad-leaved. 

Maple,  hard 

Maple,  red 

Maple,  rock .... 

Maple,  silver. 


SEC.  PAGE 

I  49 

I  50 

I  50 

I  50 

I  50 

I  50 

Maple,  soft I  50 

Maple    staves,    oak,    beech 

and    VIII  235 

Maple,   sugar I  50 

Maple,  swamp I  50 

Maple,  water I  50 

Matching     or     assembling 

heading IX  292 

Material,  harvesting  raw.  .   VII  175 
Mature  timber,  plan  for  pro- 
tecting      in  99 

Maul  oak I  53 

Meadow    pine I  22 

Mensuration XII  376 

Metal  and  babbitting,  Bab- 
bitt   XII  359 

Method    of   fighting   forest 

fires   in  102 

Methods  of  manufacturing 

hoops,  different X  305 

Mill,  site  and  arrangement 

of VH  192 

Mill,  the  slack  stock VII  194 

Minute  structure  of  wood. .        I  29 

Mockernut  hickory I  47 

Modern  shop  management.    XI  329 
Moisture,   demands   of  red 

gum  upon   soil  and....       I  4] 

Moisture,  glue  to  resist. . .  XII  361 
Moisture   on   wood,   effects 

of   IX  270 

loose  elm I  37 

lore  important  coniferous 

woods,  list  of I  16 

lossy-cup  oak I  52 

lost       important      broad- 
leaved  trees,  list  of I  30 

lulberry I  59 

Mulberry,  red I  50 


388 


INDEX 


SEC.    PAGE 


N 


New  departures  in  dealing 

with  the  fire  problem . .  .  Ill  98 
New  York  State,  legal  fruit 

barrel  in XII  353 

Norway  pine I  22 

Notes  on  belting XII  353 

Number  and  style  of  teeth 

in  saws IV  127 

Number  staves  per  cord  or 

rank  VIII  235 

Number  teeth  in  circular 

ripsaws,  standard IV  130 

Number  teeth  in  cross-cut 

saws,  standard IV  131 

Numbers  for  rapid  calcula- 
tion, useful XII  370 

Nut,  coffee I  36 

Nut  hickory,  bitter I  48 

Nut  hickory,  black I  47 

Nut  hickory,  bull I  47 

Nut  hickory,  pig I  48 

Nut,  Illinois . .  I  48 


0 


and     maple 


VIII 
I 
I 

I 
I 
I 


Oak   

Oak,  basket 
Oak,     beech 

staves 

Oak,  black 

Oak,  black 

Oak,  bur 

Oak,  chestnut.  . 
Oak,  chinquapin 

Oak,  cow I 

Oak,  duck J 

Oak,  iron I 

Oak,  live I 

Oak,  live I 

Oak,  maul 

Oak,  mossy-cup 
Oak,  over-cup 
Oak,  over-cup 
Oak,  peach  .  . . 
Oak,  pin 


50 
52 

235 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
53 
52 
53 
53 
53 
52 
52 
52 
53 
53 


Oak,  possum   I 

Oak,  post   I 

Oak,  punk k    -I 

Oak,  red I 

Oak,  red 

Oak,  scarlet 

Oak,  Spanish 

Oak,  swamp  post 

Oak,  swamp  Spanish 

Oak,  swamp  white 

Oak,  swamp  white 

Oak,  Valparaiso 

Oak,  water 

Oak,  water 

Oak,  willow   

Oak,  white 

Oak,  white 

Oak,  white 

Oak,  white 

Oak,  yellow   

Oak,  yellow   

Odor,  color  and 

Ohio   buckeye    

Old  field  pine 

Old  field  pine 


Old  files,  to  temper V 

Orange,  osage    I 

Orange,  osage I 


Oregon  ash I 

Oregon  cedar I 

Oregon  pine  I 

Orf ord  cedar,  Port I 

Osage  orange  I 

Osage  orange  I 

Oven  or  bulldog  furnace, 

the  dutch  VIII 

Over-cup  oak  I 

Over-cup  oak  I 


SEC.  PAGE 
53 
52 
53 
52 
53 
53 
53 
52 
53 
52 
52 
53 
53 
53 
53 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
52 
62 
34 
22 
22 
147 
34 
53 
31 
17 
24 
17 
34 
53 


226 
52 
52 


Packing  heading,  bundling 

or IX  298 

Packing,  stave  bundling  or.VIII  249 

Paper  birch   I  33 

Patent  hoop,  the X  304 


INDEX 


389 


SEC.  PAGE 

Peach  oak I  53 

Pecan  I  48 

Pendulous  swing  heading 

saw,  the  IX  258 

Persimmon I  54 

Pig  nut  hickory I  48 

Piling  and  air-seasoning, 

head IX  285 

Piling  and  air-seasoning, 

stave VIII  240 

Piling  hoops  on  yard X  323 

Pin  oak  I  53 

Pine  I  20 

Pine,  bastard  I  22 

Pine,  black I  23 

Pine,  black I  23 

Pine,  bull .*.  I  22 

Pine,  bull  I  23 

Pine,  Carolina I  22 

Pine,  Cuban I  22 

Pine,  Georgia 21 

Pine,  ginger 17 

Pine,  gray  23 

Pine,  Jersey 23 

Pine,  loblolly 22 

Pine,  lodge  pole 23 

Pine,  long-leaf 21 

Pine,  long-straw 21 

Pine,  meadow  22 

Pine,  Norway  22 

Pine,  old  field I  22 

Pine,  old  field I  22 

Pine,  Oregon  I  24 

Pine,  pitch I  23 

Pine,  pumpkin  I  21 

Pine,  rosemary  I  22 

Pine,  sap .  I  22 

Pine,  scrub  I  23 

Pine,  scrub  I  23 

Pine,  scrub  I  23 

Pine,  short-leaf I  22 

Pine,  short-straw  I  22 

Pine,  slash  I  22 

Pine,  slash I  22 

Pine,  slash  .  I  22 


SEC.  PAGE 

Pine,  soft  I  21 

Pine,  sugar   . .  I  21 

Pine,  swamp    I  22 

Pine,  white    I  21 

Pine,  white    I  21 

Pine,  white   I  21 

Pine,  white    I  21 

Pine,  yellow I  21 

Pine,  yellow I  21 

Pine,  yellow 22 

Pine,  yellow 22 

Pine,  yellow  long-leaf 21 

Pine,  hard   21 

Pine,  soft   21 

Pitch  pine   23 

Pith,  bark  and 7 

Plan  for  protecting  mature 

timber  Ill  99 

Planer,  the  heading IX  285 

Planer,  the  hoop X  318 

Pointing  and  lapping  ma- 
chine, the  hoop X  319 

Pole  pine,  lodge I  23 

Poor  results  in  saws,  some 

causes  of IV  122 

Poplar I  54 

Poplar I  55 

Poplar I  58 

Poplar,  bay I  44 

Poplar,  blue   I  58 

Poplar,  hickory I  58 

Poplar,  white I  58 

Poplar,  yellow I  56 

Poplar,  yellow I  58 

Port  Orford  cedar I  17 

Possum  oak  . I  53 

Post  borers,  powder II  78 

Post  oak I  52 

Post  oak,  swamp I  52 

Power  constants,  horse ....  XII  369 

Power  equivalents    XII  374 

Power       of       an       engine, 

horse    XII  367 

Power  of  belting,  rules  for 

calculating   XII  357 


390 


INDEX 


Power     of     leather     belts, 
horse XII 

Powder  post  borers II 

Practical      discussion      on 
knives   V 

Prevent  insect  injury,  how 
to 

Prevention  of  forest  fires, 
cause  and  Ill 

Private  lands,   fire  protec- 
tion on  Ill 

Problem,  new  departures  in 
dealing  with  the  fire.  . .  .    Ill 

Problem,  the  waste 

Problems     in     kiln-drying, 
unsolved    IX 

Process    of    manufacturing 
hoops,  the  cutting X 

Process    of    manufacturing 
hoops,  the  sawn X 

Process,   saw-fitting   not 
mysterious IV 

Produced,  quantity  and  val- 
ue of  slack  stock VI 

Produced,  quantity  of  slack 
heads   VI 

Produced,  quantity  of  slack 
hoops  

Produced,  quantity  of  slack 
staves    VI 

Production,  slack  cooperage 
stock    

Production  of  slack  stock.  . 

Production,  slack  heading. 

Production,  slack  hoop .... 

Production,  slack  stave.  .  .  . 

Production,  slack  stock . .  . 

Products,  crude 

Products  in  the  rough,  sea- 
soned         II 

Products  in  the  rough,  un- 
seasoned         II 

Proper  care  of  saws,  the .  .  . 

Properties  of  timber,  char- 
acteristics and  . 


EC. 

TTT 

PAGE 

358 

Protecting   mature  timber, 
plan  for 

SEC. 

TTI 

PAGE 
99 

ii 

78 

Protection  on  private  lands, 
fire  

TTT 

97 

V 

143 

Pulleys,  rules  for  calculat- 
ing speed  of  

XTT 

356 

TT 

81 

Pumpkin  pine 

I 

21 

Punk  oak  

T 

53 

III 
III 

101 
97 

Q 

Quantity  and  value  of  stock 
produced 

VT 

160 

III 

TTT 

98 
198 

Quantity  of  slack  heads  pro- 
duced 

VI 

165 

TX 

279 

Quantity  of  slack  hoops  pro- 
duced   

VT 

168 

X 

312 

Quantity    of    slack    staves 
produced  

VT 

163 

X 

309 

Question  of  second  growth, 
the  

TTT 

100 

IV 

108 

R 

Range  of  red  gum 

T 

39 

VI 
VT 

160 
165 

Range  of  tupelo  gum  
Rank,  number  of  staves  per 
cord  or 

I 
VIII 

46 
235 

VT 

168 

Rapid    calculation,    useful 
numbers  for  

XTT 

370 

VI 

163 

Rapidity  of  evaporation  of 
water  in  wood  . 

IX 

269 

VI 
VT 

158 
155 

Raw  material,  harvesting.. 
Receipts  for  soldering  flu- 
ids        . 

VII 
XII 

175 
361 

VT 

166 

Red  ash  

T 

31 

VI 

VT 

167 
162 

Red  birch   
Red  cedar 

I 
T 

33 
17 

VI 
IT 

153 

79 

Red  cedar  of  the  West  
Red  cedars 

I 
I 

16 
17 

Red  cypress 

I 

18 

IT 

85 

Red  elm   

T 

37 

Red  fir     .  . 

I 

18 

IT 

83 

Red  fir   

I 

19 

TV 

122 

Red  fir 

I 

24 

Red  gum  

T 

39 

T 

3 

Red  arum  . 

T 

55 

INDEX 


391 


SEC.    PAGE 

Red    gum,    demands    upon 

soil  and  moisture  of.  ...  I 

Red  gum,  form  of I 

Red  gum,  range  of I 

Red  gum,  reproduction  of .  .  I 

Red  gum,  second-growth ...  I 

Red  gum,  tolerance  of I 


Red  maple  I 

Red  mulberry  I 

Red  oak  I 

Red  oak  I 

Redwood I 

Redwood I 

Refuse,  burning  slash  and.  Ill 
Remarks  on  forest  fires, 

general Ill 

Remarks  on  timber,  general  I 
Report,  review  of  forest ...  VI 
Reproduction  of  red  gum. .  I 
Resist  moisture,  glue  to ...  XII 
Results  in  saws,  some 

causes  of  poor IV 

Review  of  forest  report ....  VI 
Ring,  the  annual  or  yearly  I 

Ripsaws,  circular IV 

Ripsaws,  standard  number 

teeth  in  circular IV 

River  birch I 

Rock  elm I 

Rock  maple  I 

Room  equipment,  filing ....  IV 

Room,  the  bolting VIII 

Room,  the  heading IX 

Rosemary  pine  I 

Round-headed  borers II 

Round,  saws  out  of IV 

Round  timber  with  bark  on  II 
Rough,  seasoned  products 

in  the  II 

Rough,  unseasoned  products 

in  the II 

Rules  and  information  on 

steam,  useful XII 

Rules  and  information  on 

water,  useful XII 


41 
40 
39 
42 
43 
41 
50 
50 
52 
53 
17 
23 
99 

89 

3 

169 

42 
361 

122 

169 

9 

128 

130 

33 

37 

50 

109 

208 

285 

22 

75 

124 

79 

85 

83 

364 

362 


SEC.    PAGE 

Rules  for  calculating  horse- 
power of  an  engine XII  367 

Rules  for  calculating  power 

of  belting XII  357 

Rules  for  calculating  speed 

of  pulleys XII  356 

S 

Sap  and  heartwood I  8 

Saplings    II  82 

Sap  pine I  22 

Sassafras    I  55 

Sawn  process  of  manufac- 
turing hoops  X  309 

Saw-fitting  not  a  mysteri- 
ous process IV  108 

Saw  instructions,  general.  .     IV  107 

Saw,  the  bolting. VIII  214 

Saw,  the  cut-off VIII  209 

Saw,  the  cylinder  stave... VIII  236 

Saw,  the  drag VIII  211 

Saw,  the  drop-feed  circular 

cut-off  VIII  212 

Saw,  the  heading IX  258 

Saw,  the  horizontal  head- 
ing    IX  262 

Saw,  the  swing  cut-off VIII  239 

Saws    IV  106 

Saws,  circular  rip IV  128 

Saws,  collars  for IV  131 

Saws,  cracks  in  equalizer.  .VIII  230 
Saws,  cut-off  or  cross-cut.  .    IV  130 
Saws,  fitting  and  swaging.    IV  125 
Saws,  for  gumming  or  sharp- 
ening circular   IV  111 

Saws,  for  gumming  or  sharp- 
ening cylinder  stave....    IV  116 
Saws,  for  hammering  and 

adjusting  circular    IV  114 

Saws,  for  setting  circular. .    IV  115 
Saws,  for  side-dressing  cir- 
cular       IV  113 

Saws,  for  swaging  circular .    IV  112 
Saws,  for  swaging  cylinder 

stave IV  117 


392 


INDEX 


Saws,  hammering  and  ten 
sioning  

Saws,  lead  of IV 

Saws,  number  and  style  of 
teeth  in IV 

Saws  out  of  round 

Saws,  sharpening  and  gum- 
ming    IV 

Saws,  some  causes  of  poor 
results  in  

Saws,  speed  of IV 

Saws,  standard  number- 
teeth  in  circular  rip 

Saws,  standard  number 
teeth  in  cross-cut 

Sf.ws,  the  proper  care  of .  .  . 

Savin  juniper    

Scarlet  oak 

Scrub  pine  

Scrub  pine  

Scrub  pine 

Seasoned  products  in  the 
rough  

Seasoning > IX 

Seasoning  is,  what IX 

Seasoning,  head  piling  and 
air 

Seasoning,  stave  piling  and 
air 7 

Second-growth  red  gum .  .  . 

Second  growth,  the  ques- 
tion of  

Setting  circular  saws,  for. 

Shagbark  hickory  

Sharpening  and  gumming 
saws  IV 

Sharpening  and  gumming 
circular  saws,  for 

Sharpening  and  gumming 
cylinder  stave  saws,  for. 

Sharpening,  for  knife 

Shellbark  hickory 

Shingle  bolts,  stave,  head- 
ing and 

Shop  management,  modern    XI 


EC. 

PAGE 

IV 

133 

IV 

127 

IV 

127 

IV 

124 

IV 

125 

IV 

122 

IV 

132 

IV 

130 

IV 

131 

IV 

122 

I 

17 

I 

53 

I 

23 

I 

23 

I 

23 

II 

85 

IX 

263 

IX 

263 

IX 

285 

III 

240 

I 

43 

III 

100 

IV 

115 

I 

47 

IV 

125 

IV 

111 

IV 

116 

IV 

118 

I 

47 

II 

83 

XI 

329 

SEC.    PAGE 

Short-leaf  pine   .    I  22 

Short-straw  pine I  22 

Shrinkage  of  wood IX  271 

Side-dressing  circular  saws, 

for IV  113 

Silver  maple   I  50 

Site    and    arrangement    of 

mill   VII  192 

Slack      cooperage,      woods 

chiefly  used  for VI  156 

Slack  cooperage  stock  pro- 
duction      VI  158 

Slack       cooperage       stock, 

weights  of    XII  349 

Slack     heading     manufac- 
ture      IX  257 

Slack  heading  production .  .  VI  166 
Slack  heads  produced,  quan- 
tity of VI  165 

Slack  hoop   manufacture .  .  X  303 
Slack  hoop  production....  VI  167 
Slack  hoops  produced,  quan- 
tity of   VI  168 

Slack  stave  manufacture.  .VIII  197 
Slack  stave  production.  ...  VI  162 
Slack  staves  produced,  quan- 
tity of VI  163 

Slack  stock  mill,  the VII  194 

Slack  stock  production.  ...  VI  153 
Slack  stock  production  of.  VI  155 
Slack  stock  produced,  quan- 
tity and  value  of VI  160 

Slash  or  refuse,  burning.  .  Ill  99 

Slash  pine    -  I  22 

Slash  pine   I  22 

Slash  pine   I  22 

Slippery  elm    I  37 

Soft  maple I  50 

Soft  pine    I  21 

Soft  pines    I  21 

Soil  and  moisture,  demands 

of  red  gum  upon I  41 

Soldering     fluids,     receipts 

for    XII  361 

Solutions,  tempering V  146 


INDEX 


393 


Some  causes  of  poor  results 

in  saws   

Some  estimates  of  loss  from 

forest  fires  Ill 

Sour  gum 

Sour  gum 

Spanish  oak 

Spanish  oak,  swamp 

Species,  weight  of  kiln-dried 

wood  of  different 

Specifications    and    grades 

on  heading,  standard. .  .  . 
Specifications    and    grades 

on  hoops,  standard 

Specifications    and    grades 

on  staves,  standard VIII 

Speed  of  belts 

Speed  of  emery  wheels .... 

Speed  of  knives V 

Speed  of  pulleys,  rules  for 

calculating   

Speed  of  saws IV 

Spring  and  summer-wood . . 

Spruce  

Spruce,  bastard 

Spruce,  black 

Spruce,  Douglas   

Spruce,  tide  land 

Spruce,  white    . 

Spruce,  white    

Standard  number  teeth  in 

cross-cut  saws   IV 

Standard  number  teeth  in 

ripsaws   IV 

Standard  specifications  and 

grades  on  heading 

Standard  specifications  and 

grades  on  hoops X 

Standard  specifications  and 

grades  on  staves VIII 

Stave  and  heading  bolts. 
Stave  bundling  or  packing.  VIII 
Stave  bolt   equalizing  ma 

chine VIII 

Stave  bolts,  steam-boxes  for  VIII 


3EC. 

PAGE 

IV 

122 

III 

90 

I 

46 

I 

55 

I 

53 

I 

53 

I 

68 

IX 

299 

X 

324 

III 

252 

XII 

355 

V 

150 

V 

144 

XII 

356 

IV 

132 

I 

10 

I 

23 

I 

24 

I 

23 

I 

24 

I 

24 

I 

24 

I 

24 

IV 

131 

IV 

130 

IX 

299 

X 

324 

III 

252 

III 

216 

III 

249 

III 

228 

[II 

218 

SEC.    PAGE 

Stave-cutting  machine  .  .  .  .VIII  231 
Stave,  heading  and  shingle 

bolts II       83 

Stave  inspection   VIII     250 

Stave- jointing  machine  .  .  .VIII     244 

Stave  jointing VIII     244 

Stave,  manufacture,  slack. VIII     197 
Stave    piling    and    air-sea- 
soning   VIII     240 

Stave  production,  slack.  .  .  VI  162 
Stave  saw,  the  cylinder.  .  .VIII  236 
Stave  saws,  for  sharpening 

and  gumming  cylinder.  .    IV     116 
Stave    saws,    for    swaging 

cylinder IV     117 

Staves   and   heads    of   bar- 
rels containing  alcoholic 

liquids  II       86 

Staves,  dead  cull VIII     254 

Staves,  elm   VIII     234 

Staves,    gum    and    cotton- 
wood    VIII     235 

Staves,  oak,  beech  and  ma- 
ple    ' VIII     235 

Staves    per   cord    or   rank, 

number  of   VIII     235 

Staves    produced,   quantity 

of  slack    VI     163 

Staves,   standard  specifica- 
tions and  grades  on VIII     252 

Steam-boxes  for  stave  bolts. VIII  218 
Steam  engines,  duty  of.  ...  XII  365 
Steam  engines,  horsepower 

of   XII     367 

Steam,  useful  rules  and  in- 
formation on XII     364 

Stock     and    wooden    truss 

hoops,  dry  cooperage. ...      II       86 
Stock,  production  of  slack.    VI     155 
Stock  production,  slack  coo- 
perage      VI     158 

Stock  production,  slack...  VI  153 
Stock  produced,  quantity  of 

slack VI     160 

Stock  mill,  the  slack VII     194 


394 


INDEX 


SEC.   PAGE 

Stock,  weights  of  slack  coo- 
perage   

Straw  pine,  long 

Straw  pine,  short 

Structure,  anatomical   .... 

Structure  of  wood,  minute. 

Style  of  teeth  in  saws, 
number  and IV 

Sugar  berry 

Sugar  maple    

Sugar  pine 

Summer-wood,  spring  and. 

Swaging  circular  saws,  for    IV 

Swaging,  fitting  and IV 

Swaging  cylinder  stave 
saws,  for IV 

Swamp  hickory 

Swamp  maple   

Swamp  pine 

Swamp  post  oak 

Swamp  Spanish  oak 

Swamp  white  oak 

Swamp  white  oak 

Sweet  birch 

Sweet  buckeye    

Sweet  gum   

Sweet  gum 

Sweet  locust 

Swing  cut-off  saw,  the.  .  .  .VIII 

Swing  heading  saw,  the 
pendulous  IX 

Switch  bud  hickory 

Switch,  the  unloading.  .  .  . 

Sycamore    , 

Sycamore   


Table  of  alloys XII 

Table  of  gauges XII 

Table  of  tempers  to  which 
tools  should  be  drawn . . 

Tamarack 

Tamarack 

Tamarack   

Tamarack  . 


11 

349 

I 

21 

I 

22 

I 

13 

I 

29 

v 

127 

I 

47 

I 

50 

I 

21 

I 

10 

V 

112 

V 

125 

V 

117 

I 

48 

I 

50 

I 

22 

I 

52 

I 

53 

I 

52 

I 

52 

I 

33 

I 

34 

I 

39 

i 

55 

i 

49 

IT 

239 

X 

258 

I 

48 

11 

193 

I 

55 

I 

56 

II 

373 

II 

372 

V 

147 

I 

19 

I 

19 

I 

20 

I 

23 

SE(T.   PAGE 

Tamarack '. .  I  25 

Teeth   in  circular  ripsaws, 

standard  number    IV  130 

Teeth     in    cross-cut    saws, 

standard  number    IV  131 

Teeth  in  saws,  number  and 

style  of IV  127 

Temper  knives,  to V  146 

Temper  of  knives V  144 

Temper  of  knives,  different 

ideas  on V  143 

Temper  old  files,  to V  147. 

Tempering  solutions    V  146 

Tempers     to     which     tools 

should  be  drawn,  table  of  V  147 
Tensioning   saws,  hammer- 
ing and  IV  133 

Thorned  acacia,  three I  49 

Three-thorned  acacia I  49 

Tide-land  spruce   I  24 

Timber  beetles,  ambrosia..  II  74 
Timber,  characteristics  and 

properties  of   I  3 

Timber,  general  remarks  on  I  3 
Timber,  plan  for  protecting 

mature    Ill  99 

Timber  with  bark  on,  round  II  79 

Timber  worms II  77 

Time  of  felling VII  178 

Tolerance  of  red  gum I  41 

Tools  should  be  drawn,  ta- 
ble of  tempers  to  which.  V  147 
Transporting  gum,  difficul- 
ties of VII  191 

Treasury     or     Government 

whitewash   XII  373 

Tree,  bee I  32 

Tree,  button-ball I  55 

Tree,  coffee : I  36 

Tree,  cucumber   I  36 

Tree,  cucumber I  56 

Tree,  lime I  32 

Tree,  tulip   I  56 

Tree,  tulip  I  58 

Trees,  classes  of I  5 


INDEX 


395 


SEC. 

Trees,     list     of     important 

broad-leaved    I 

Trees,     list     of     important 

coniferous I 

Trees,  wood  of  broad-leaved  I 

Trees,  wood  of  coniferous.  .  I 
Truss  hoops,  dry  cooperage 

stock  and  wooden II 

Tupelo I 

Tulip  I 

Tulip  tree    I 

Tulip  tree    I 


Tupelo  gum   

Tupelo  gum,  range  of .  .  .  . 
Tupelo  gum,  uses  of 


Tulip  wood I 

I 
I 
I 

Turner,  the  heading IX 

U 

Unloading  switch,  the ....  VII 

Unseasoned  products  in  the 
rough II 

Unsolved  problems  in  kiln- 
drying  IX 

Useful  numbers  for  rapid 
calculation  XII 

Useful  rules  and  informa- 
tion on  steam XII 

Useful  rules  and  informa- 
tion on  water XII 

Uses  of  tupelo  gum I 


Valparaiso  oak  I 

Value   of   slack  stock  pro- 
duced, quantity  and VI 

Value  of  wood,  weight  and 

comparative  fuel XII 

Vat,  the  hoop-boiling X 

Views   of    lumbermen   con- 
cerning forest  fires Ill 


W 


Wahoo  , 
Walnut 


PAGE  SEC.    PAGE 

Walnut,  black  I  33 

30  Walnut,  black  I  •  56 

Walnut,  white I  34 

16  Walnut,  white I  57 

25  Waste  problem,  the VIII  198 

7  Water  beech I  33 

Water  beech I  55 

86  Water  elm  I  37 

56  Water    in    wood,    distribu- 

57  tion  of   IX  267 

56    Water  in  wood,  manner  of 

58  evaporation  of IX  266 

54    Water  in  wood,  rapidity  of 

44  evaporation  of IX  269 

46    Water  maple   I  50 

45  Water  oak   I  53 

293    Water  oak I  53 

Water,  useful  information 

and  rules  on XII  362 

193    Weight     and     comparative 

fuel  value  of  wood XII  366 

83    Weight  of  kiln-dried  wood 

of  different  species I  68 

279    Weight  of  wood I  63 

WTeights  of  slack  cooperage 

370        stock    XII  349 

West,  red  cedar  of  the I  16 

364    Wheels,  emery V  148 

Wheels,  speed  of  emery V  150 

362    White  ash   I  31 

45    White  basswood   I  32 

White  birch  I  33 

White  cedar I  16 

53    White  cedar  I  17 

White  cedar  I  17 

160    White  cedar  I  17 

White  cypress  I  18 

366    White  elm   I  37 

313    White  elm I  37 

White  fir    I  is 

95    White  fir    I  18 

White-heart  hickory I  47 

White  oak I  '52 

I       38    White  oak I  52 

I       56  i  White  oak I  52 


396 


INDEX 


SEC. 

White  oak I 

White  oak,  swamp .       I 

White  oak,  swamp 

White  pine 

White  pine 

White  pine 

White  pine 

White  poplar I 

White  spruce I 

White  spruce I 

White  walnut   ,       I 

White  walnut   I 

Whitewash,     Treasury     or 
Government  ..  .  XII 


White  willow I 

Whitewood I 

Whitewood I 

Whitewood I 

Willow  oak    I 

Willow,  white I 

Winged  elm   I 

Wood,  anatomical  structure 

of   I 

Wood,  different  grains  of .  .  I 

Wood,  difficulties  of  drying  IX 
Wood,  distribution  of  water 

in IX     267 

Wood,   effects   of   moisture 

on IX 

Wood,  enemies  of II 

Wood,  iron I 

Wood,  iron I 

Wood,  manner  of  evapora- 
tion of  water  in.  .  IX 


PAGE 
52 
52 
52 
21 
21 
21 
21 
58 
24 
24 
34 
57 

373 
57 

56 
57 
58 
53 
57 
38 

13 

58 
278 


Wood,  minute  structure  of  I 

Wood  of  coniferous  trees .  .  I 

Wood  of  broad-leaved  trees  I 
Wood  of  different  species, 

weight  of  kiln-dried I 


270 

71 
33 

48 

266 
29 
7 
25 

68 


SEC.    PAGE 

Wood,  rapidity  of  evapora- 
tion of  water  in IX  269 

Wood,  white I  56 

Wood,  white I  57 

Wood,  white I  58 

WToods     chiefly     used     for 

slack  cooperage VI  156 

Woods,    list   of    important 

coniferous  I  16 

Woods  management VII  184 

Wood,  shrinkage  of IX  271 

Wood,  spring  and  summer.  I  10 
Wood,  weight  and  compar- 
ative fuel  value  of XII  364 

Wood,  weight  of I  63 

Wood,  weight  of  kiln-dried       I  68 
Wooden   truss    hoops,    dry 

cooperage  stock  and II  86 

Worms,  timber    II  77 


Yard,  piling  hoops  on X  323 

Yearly    ring,    the    annual 

or    I  9 

Yellow  birch   I  33 

Yellow  fir I  24 

Yellow  locust    I  48 

Yellow  long-leaf  pine I  21 

Yellow  oak I  52 

Yellow  oak I  52 

fellow  pine   I  21 

Yellow  pine   I  21 

Yellow  pine' I  22 

Yellow  pine   I  22 

Yellow  poplar   I  56 

Yellow  poplar   I  58 

Yew  . I  25 

Yew  .  I  25 


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